African Americans In The Revolutionary Period

The American Revolution, a period celebrated for its ideals of liberty and self-governance, presents a complex narrative when viewed through the lens of slavery. As Samuel Johnson, the esteemed English writer, aptly questioned in 1775, "How is it that we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the drivers of Negroes?" This query encapsulates the inherent contradiction of a revolution fought for freedom while simultaneously upholding the institution of slavery, which affected approximately 450,000 African Americans across the thirteen colonies.

In 1775, slavery was a pervasive practice throughout the colonies, but its significance was most pronounced in the Southern economies, stretching from the Chesapeake region down to Georgia. This region’s economic and social fabric was inextricably linked to the labor of enslaved Africans, who cultivated lucrative export crops such as tobacco, rice, indigo, and naval stores. The transatlantic slave trade, which forcibly brought Africans to the New World, was the backbone of this system, fueling the colonies’ prosperity. As tensions with the British Empire escalated, the future of African Americans in this volatile environment remained uncertain. The question loomed: what implications would a potential break from British rule have for the enslaved population?

Lord Dunmore, the British Governor of Virginia, astutely recognized the vulnerability of the Southern colonies due to their reliance on slave labor. In November 1775, he issued a proclamation that promised freedom to any slave belonging to a rebel who sought refuge within British lines. This strategic maneuver aimed to destabilize the Southern economy and bolster British forces. Dunmore subsequently organized an "Ethiopian" brigade, composed of approximately 300 African Americans, who engaged in combat at the Battle of Great Bridge on December 9, 1775. While Dunmore and his forces were eventually driven out of Virginia, the specter of armed former slaves fighting alongside the British undoubtedly instilled fear among plantation owners throughout the South. The promise of freedom, however conditional, became a powerful motivator for enslaved people seeking liberation.

In contrast to the South, African Americans in New England actively embraced the Patriot cause, joining militia forces that would later form the Continental Army. At the Battle of Bunker Hill on June 17, 1775, approximately five percent of the American soldiers were of African descent. These New Englanders typically served in integrated units, receiving equal pay to their white counterparts, although no African American is known to have attained a rank higher than corporal. The presence of African Americans in the ranks of the Continental Army demonstrated their commitment to the ideals of liberty and their willingness to fight for a nation that, in theory, promised equality. The contributions of these soldiers, however, often went unacknowledged or were minimized in historical accounts. The story of African Americans In The Revolutionary Period is one of courage, resilience, and a persistent pursuit of freedom amidst a nation struggling with its own ideals.

Estimates suggest that around 5,000 black soldiers fought for the Patriot cause during the Revolutionary War. However, the exact number remains elusive due to the lack of racial identification in 18th-century muster rolls. Recent research, involving meticulous comparisons between muster rolls and other historical records like church and census data, has aided in identifying many of these black soldiers. Furthermore, eyewitness accounts offer valuable insights into the level of African American participation. Baron von Closen, a member of Rochambeau’s French army at Yorktown, noted in July 1781 that "A quarter of them [the American army] are Negroes, merry, confident and sturdy." This observation underscores the significant presence and contribution of African Americans to the Continental Army, even if their numbers were often underreported. The struggle of African Americans In The Revolutionary Period is a testament to their unwavering commitment to the cause of liberty, despite the hypocrisy of a nation that simultaneously fought for freedom while perpetuating slavery.

Early in the war, both Congress and General George Washington initially hesitated to enlist African Americans, whether free or enslaved, as soldiers. The fear of armed slave revolts loomed larger than the threat posed by British redcoats. However, as the war progressed and the Continental Army faced dwindling numbers, policies began to shift. In January 1776, General Washington authorized the enlistment of free blacks with "prior military experience." This policy was later expanded in January 1777 to include all free blacks, aiming to replenish the depleted ranks of the Continental Army. As states consistently failed to meet their manpower quotas, Congress eventually authorized the enlistment of all blacks, both free and enslaved, later in 1777. Among the Southern colonies, only Maryland permitted African Americans to enlist. In 1779, Congress even offered slave masters in South Carolina and Georgia $1,000 for each slave provided to the army, but the legislatures of both states rejected the offer. Consequently, the majority of African American soldiers in the American army came from the North. The narrative of African Americans In The Revolutionary Period is complex and multifaceted, revealing the interplay between the ideals of liberty, the realities of slavery, and the strategic necessities of war.

While most Continental regiments were integrated, the First Rhode Island Regiment stood out as an exception. This elite unit, mustered into service in July 1778, consisted of 197 black enlisted men commanded by white officers. Baron von Closen described the regiment as "the most neatly dressed, the best under arms, and the most precise in its maneuvers." The First Rhode Island Regiment saw its first action at the Battle of Rhode Island (Newport) on August 29, 1778, successfully repelling three assaults by veteran Hessian troops. Later, at the siege of Yorktown on the night of October 14, 1781, the regiment’s light company participated in the assault and capture of Redoubt 10. On June 13, 1783, the regiment was disbanded, receiving high praise for its distinguished service. Another notable black unit, recruited in the French colony of St. Domingue (present-day Haiti), fought alongside the French and Patriots at the Battle of Savannah on October 9, 1779. These examples highlight the bravery and competence of African American soldiers, who consistently demonstrated their commitment to the Patriot cause. The saga of African Americans In The Revolutionary Period is a testament to their unwavering pursuit of freedom and equality, even amidst the contradictions of the American Revolution.

In 1780, as the British launched their southern campaign, one of their objectives was to incite fear among Americans and encourage them to return to the crown by threatening massive slave revolts. The British enticed slaves to flee to their strongholds, promising eventual freedom. However, this strategy backfired as slave owners rallied to the Patriot cause, perceiving it as the best way to maintain order and preserve the plantation system. Tens of thousands of African Americans sought refuge with the British, but fewer than 1,000 served as soldiers. Instead, the British utilized escapees as teamsters, cooks, nurses, and laborers. At the conclusion of the war, approximately 20,000 blacks departed with the British, choosing an uncertain future elsewhere over a return to their former masters. These American blacks ended up in Canada, Britain, the West Indies, and Europe. Some were even sold back into slavery. In 1792, 1,200 black loyalists who had settled in Nova Scotia migrated to Sierra Leone, a colony established by Britain on the west coast of Africa specifically for former slaves.

The Revolution brought about some changes for American blacks, although full equality remained elusive. The courageous military service of African Americans, coupled with the revolutionary spirit, led to the almost immediate abolition of slavery in New England. The middle states of New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey adopted policies of gradual emancipation between 1780 and 1804. Many of the Founding Fathers, even some who held human property, opposed slavery in principle. The voluntary freeing of slaves increased in the aftermath of the Revolution. Nevertheless, free blacks in both the North and South continued to face pervasive discrimination in virtually every aspect of life, including employment, housing, and education. Many of the Founding Fathers harbored hopes that slavery would eventually disappear in the American South. However, this hope was dashed when cotton became the dominant crop in the South after 1800, making the labor of enslaved people even more profitable. Despite this setback, the declaration of human equality in the Declaration of Independence remained a powerful ideal that civil rights activists would invoke in the decades to come.

Within the Massachusetts State Archives lies a petition to the General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, which recounts the actions of a man from Colonel Frye’s Regiment during the "late Battle at Charlestown," stating that he "behaved like an experienced officer" and that "in this man centers a brave and gallant soldier." This document, dated December 1775, just six months after the Battle of Bunker Hill, is signed by 14 officers present at the battle, including Colonel William Prescott. Out of the 2,400 to 4,000 colonists who participated in the battle, this man is the only one singled out in this manner.

This hero of the Battle of Bunker Hill was Salem Poor of Andover, Massachusetts. While historical records indicate that Poor, along with his regiment and two others, were dispatched to Bunker Hill to construct a fort and other fortifications on the night of June 16, 1775, the specific details of his actions that earned him such high praise remain unknown. The petition states that "to set forth the particulars of his conduct would be tedious." Perhaps his heroic deeds were simply too numerous to recount.

Limited information is available about Salem Poor’s life. Born into slavery in the late 1740s, he managed to purchase his freedom in 1769 for 27 pounds, equivalent to a year’s salary for the average working man. He married Nancy, a free African-American woman, and they had a son. In May 1775, Salem Poor left his wife and child behind to fight for the Patriot cause at Bunker Hill, Saratoga, and Monmouth. The motivations behind Poor’s sacrifice remain speculative: was it patriotism, a desire for new experiences, or the prospect of a better life? The Battle of Bunker Hill was a bold act of defiance against established authority, and all who participated risked being hanged for treason. Despite being denied many opportunities in colonial society, Salem Poor chose to fight for an independent nation. As Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote, the bravery of Poor and other African-American soldiers "has a peculiar beauty and merit."