Caddo Tribe
The Caddo Nation stands as a testament to the enduring spirit of Native American peoples. A confederacy of several tribes, the Caddo Tribe historically occupied a vast territory encompassing present-day East Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Oklahoma. Their lineage traces back to the sophisticated Caddoan Mississippian culture, renowned for constructing monumental earthwork mounds that served as focal points for their society. The name "Caddo" itself is derived from a French adaptation of "kadohadacho," a term signifying "real chief" in the Caddo language, reflecting the hierarchical and structured nature of their society.
The linguistic heritage of the Caddo Tribe is rooted in the Caddoan language family, a branch connected to the languages of the Pawnee, Arikara, Wichita, and Kichai peoples. While each Caddo band possessed its distinct dialect, a common thread of mutual intelligibility wove through these variations, fostering communication and cohesion across the confederacy. This linguistic unity underscored the shared cultural identity of the Caddo Tribe, even amidst their decentralized settlements.
Archaeological evidence suggests that the Caddo Tribe inhabited the southern regions of North America as early as 200 BC. By 800 AD, their culture had evolved into the Caddoan Mississippian culture, marked by the rise of prominent villages that served as ritual centers. These centers were characterized by the construction of impressive earthworks, including temple mounds, elevated platforms for elite residences, and burial sites. The mounds were strategically arranged around open plazas, spaces designed for ceremonial gatherings and communal activities. This mound-building tradition flourished until the 13th century, leaving behind a legacy of architectural and cultural significance.
One of the most remarkable examples of Caddoan earthworks is the Spiro Mounds, located near the Arkansas River in present-day southeastern Oklahoma. These mounds, constructed by the ancestors of the historic Caddo Tribe and the Wichita, were among the most elaborate in the United States, showcasing the advanced engineering and artistic skills of these peoples. Similar mound sites can also be found in Alto and Nacogdoches, Texas, further illustrating the widespread influence of the Caddoan Mississippian culture.
The Caddo Tribe were traditionally semi-sedentary agriculturalists, their villages surrounded by meticulously cultivated fields of corn, beans, pumpkins, squash, and various grain-bearing grasses. Agriculture formed the cornerstone of their subsistence, supplemented by hunting small game, fishing in the rivers and streams, and gathering wild fruits and nuts from the surrounding forests. Caddo men would often embark on buffalo hunts, venturing onto the plains to secure vital resources for their communities. Furthermore, those Caddo who resided near saline marshes developed a unique expertise in salt production, boiling brine in large, shallow pans to extract salt, which they then traded with other tribes, contributing to a network of exchange and interdependence.
Caddo dwellings, often described as "beehive" style houses, were constructed using a framework of poles covered with thatched grass. These structures provided shelter and insulation, reflecting the Caddo’s adaptation to the climate of the region. The houses were typically grouped around an open space, creating a village layout that facilitated social interaction and ceremonial activities. Food preparation was accomplished using skillfully crafted pottery vessels and baskets of varying sizes, demonstrating the Caddo’s mastery of traditional crafts. Plant fibers were woven into textiles, which were then fashioned into garments. Animal skins, particularly buffalo hides, were also used for clothing, especially during the colder winter months. In addition to standard adornments such as armbands, necklaces, and earrings, the Caddo often wore nose rings and practiced tattooing, reflecting their distinctive aesthetic preferences. Descent within the Caddo Tribe was traced through the maternal line, and chieftainship was hereditary, as was the responsibility for safeguarding sacred articles used in religious ceremonies.
Centuries before the arrival of large numbers of Europeans, the Caddo Tribe faced incursions from migrating Osage, Ponca, Omaha, and Kanza tribes. These groups, driven westward by years of conflict with the Iroquois in the Ohio River Valley, began moving around 1200 AD. The Osage, in particular, engaged in warfare with the Caddo, displacing them from some of their former territories and establishing dominance in the region encompassing present-day Missouri, Arkansas, and eastern Kansas. These conflicts reshaped the geographic distribution of the Caddo Tribe and influenced their interactions with neighboring groups.
In 1535-36, Cabeza de Vaca and his companions traversed a portion of the territory occupied by the Caddo, marking an early encounter between Europeans and the tribe. Later, in 1542, Hernando de Soto’s expedition entered the region, discovering thriving Caddo communities dispersed along the Brazos, Trinity, Neches, Sabine, Red, and Ouachita Rivers. By the late 17th century, the Caddo population numbered approximately 8,000 individuals, living in villages scattered along the Red River and its tributaries. These early encounters with European explorers foreshadowed the profound changes that would soon transform the Caddo world.
During the 18th century, the Spanish and the French engaged in a protracted struggle for control over the territory inhabited by the Caddo. The Caddo Tribe found themselves caught in the crossfire of these competing colonial powers, with the trails between their villages becoming routes for armed forces and their settlements transformed into garrisoned posts. Initially, the Caddo were friendly towards the French, but their interactions with the white race brought devastating consequences. Tribal conflicts were instigated, villages were abandoned, and new diseases ravaged the population. By the end of the century, the Caddo’s welcoming attitude had shifted to one of defense and distrust. Several tribes were decimated, others were significantly reduced in numbers, and a once prosperous and numerous people had become demoralized and displaced in their own ancestral lands.
By 1790, the Arkansas Caddo, weakened by European epidemics and Osage raids, migrated further down the Red River, seeking proximity to French trade centers. The first American agent to interact with the Caddo was Major Stephen H. Long in 1818, who noted that the Caddo "inhabited a part of the country before the cession of Louisiana to the United States… pretended to claim all the country." The decisive loss of Caddo homelands in Arkansas and Louisiana occurred in July 1835, when their leaders were compelled to sign a treaty ceding all Caddo land in the nation, effectively ending their ability to live there as a unified group. Chief Tashar, who supported the treaty, poignantly stated, "My Children: For what do you mourn? Are you not starving in the midst of this land? And do you not travel far from it in quest of food? The game we live on is going farther off, and the white man is coming near to us, and is not our condition getting worse daily? Then why lament for the loss of that which yields us nothing but misery? Let us be wise then, and get all we can for it, and not wait till the white man steals it away, little by little, and then gives us nothing."
The treaty transferred approximately one million acres of land to the United States in exchange for $30,000 in goods and horses and $10,000 per year in cash for the next five years. Following this displacement, some Caddo moved to Oklahoma, others to Mexico, some joined the Choctaw tribe, and others migrated further west to the Brazos River in Texas. However, Texas was embroiled in its struggle for independence, making it impossible for any tribe to maintain peace with both opposing forces.
In 1843, the governor of the Republic of Texas dispatched a commission to the Caddo tribes to establish a boundary line between them and the white settlers and to create three trading posts. However, the land laws of the republic failed to recognize the Indians’ right of occupancy, leaving them vulnerable to encroachment by settlers who could claim land cultivated by the Caddo. This situation led to persistent conflicts, which did not abate after Texas was annexed by the United States. The peaceful Indians suffered as their fields were seized, and the more militant tribes retaliated. Adding to the difficulties, increased immigration and the depletion of buffalo herds by newcomers further threatened the Indians’ food supply.
In 1854, a reservation on the Brazos River was designated for the Caddo, and approximately 2,000 Indians, including the Anadarko, Waco, and Tonkawa, relocated there. Around 600 acres were cultivated, primarily with corn, wheat, vegetables, and melons. Many white settlers respected the reservation dwellers, and some Caddo served as scouts for the Texas Rangers and military officers against warring tribes. However, this arrangement pleased neither the anti-Indian white men nor the hostile Indians. Depredations by the Comanche in the area were often attributed to the reservation Indians, leading to escalating tensions that threatened to erupt into full-scale warfare by 1858. Consequently, Texas politicians appealed to the federal government to remove the Indians from the state.
In July 1859, the Caddo were forcibly marched for 15 days to the Washita River in Oklahoma, losing more than half of their livestock and possessions along the way. They were placed on a reservation alongside the Wichita Indians. During the Civil War, Caddo Chief Quinahiwi signed a treaty with the Confederacy, and many Caddo fought for the South. Others, loyal to the Union, sought refuge in Kansas, while some ventured as far west as Colorado.
In 1872, the boundaries of their reservation were officially defined, and in 1902, each man, woman, and child received an allotment of land under the provisions of the Dawes Act of 1887. By 1904, their population numbered 535. Today, the Caddo Nation of Oklahoma is a federally recognized tribe with its capital located in Binger, Oklahoma. The various Caddo dialects have coalesced into a single language. Currently, there are nearly 5,000 enrolled members of the nation, preserving their cultural heritage and striving for a vibrant future.
The bands that make up the Caddo include the Kadohadacho, Hainai, Anadarko, Nabedache, Nacogdoches, Natchitoches, Yatasi, Adai, Eyeish, Nakanawan, Imaha, and Yowani, each contributing to the rich tapestry of Caddo culture.
Caddo Nation
PO Box 487
Binger, Oklahoma 73009
405-656-2345