Cherokee – Westward on the Trail of Tears
The Cherokee people, originally inhabitants of the eastern and southeastern United States, faced forced relocation to the Ozark Plateau, a harrowing chapter etched in American history. Recognized as one of the Cherokee are the Five Civilized Tribes by European Americans, various bands of the Cherokee played a significant role in the shaping of colonial America and the subsequent history of the United States. Their story is one of resilience, adaptation, and the tragic consequences of westward expansion.
The name "Cherokee" is derived from an altered pronunciation of Tsalagi, the Creek word for the tribe. The Cherokee people referred to themselves as Aniyunwiya, meaning "principal people," reflecting their sense of identity and significance. Their language belongs to the Iroquoian family, a testament to ancient connections and migrations. A remarkable achievement was the development of a written syllabary by Sequoyah, enabling the preservation and transmission of their language and culture.
Historical and linguistic evidence suggests that the Cherokee migrated from present-day Texas or northern Mexico towards the Great Lakes region in prehistoric times. This vast journey, spanning centuries, reflects the dynamic nature of indigenous populations and their responses to environmental and societal pressures. However, conflicts with the Iroquois Confederacy and the Delaware tribes, who held sway over those lands, compelled the Cherokee to move southeast, seeking refuge in the mountains and valleys of the southern Appalachian chain. Eventually, they established settlements across a wide swathe of land encompassing modern Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama. This territory became the heartland of the Cherokee Nation.
The traditional Cherokee economy was deeply rooted in agriculture, a practice shared with other Southeastern tribes. Fields were cultivated with crops like corn, beans, squash, sunflowers, and tobacco, providing sustenance and playing a central role in their cultural life. Hunting was also essential, with deer, bear, and elk being primary targets for skilled hunters armed with bows and arrows. Smaller game, such as raccoons, rabbits, squirrels, and turkeys, were hunted using long cane-stem blowguns, demonstrating their ingenuity and resourcefulness in utilizing the natural environment. Fishing was another vital source of food, employing hooks, lines, spears, and traps to harvest the bounty of rivers and streams. The Cherokee also gathered wild plant foods, including roots, greens, berries, and nuts, supplementing their diet and providing essential nutrients.
Cherokee attire reflected their connection to the land and their practical needs. Women wore skirts woven from plant fibers, showcasing their skill in textile production and their ability to transform natural materials into functional clothing. Men typically wore breechcloths or leggings, providing protection and freedom of movement. Adornment played a significant role in Cherokee culture, with men painting their skin and decorating it with tattoos, expressing their identity and status within the community. Women crafted light capes of netting, often embellished with feathers, adding a touch of elegance and artistry to their appearance.
Cherokee society was structured around seven matrilineal clans, each playing a vital role in maintaining social cohesion and cultural continuity. These clans lived in numerous permanent villages, strategically located along rivers and streams to ensure access to water and resources. Cherokee families typically maintained two types of dwellings, adapted to the changing seasons. Rectangular summer houses, constructed with cane and clay walls and bark or thatch roofs, provided cool shelter during the hot months. Cone-shaped winter houses, with pole frames and brushwork covered by mud or clay, offered warmth and protection against the harsh elements. The Cherokee were also skilled artisans, crafting pottery and baskets for practical and ceremonial purposes.
The first recorded encounter between the Cherokee and Europeans occurred in 1540 when the Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto ventured into the Appalachian region. This marked the beginning of a long and complex relationship, fraught with both cooperation and conflict. By 1715, the Cherokee population had been decimated by smallpox, a disease introduced by Europeans to which they had no immunity, reducing their numbers to approximately 11,000. This devastating epidemic had a profound impact on Cherokee society, disrupting their way of life and weakening their ability to resist European encroachment.
During the struggle between the British and French for control of colonial North America, the Cherokee initially sided with the British, providing warriors to support their cause. However, tensions eventually erupted, and in 1760, the Cherokee, under the leadership of Chief Oconostota, revolted against the British in the Cherokee War. This conflict highlighted the growing resentment of the Cherokee towards British policies and their determination to protect their lands and sovereignty. During the American Revolution, some tribal members aided Great Britain, launching sporadic attacks on outlying settlements as pioneers continued to encroach upon Cherokee territory. This involvement in the war reflected the complex allegiances and divisions within the Cherokee Nation, as well as their strategic calculations in the face of a changing political landscape.
In 1785, several Cherokee bands negotiated a peace treaty with the United States, seeking to establish a peaceful coexistence. However, resistance persisted for another decade, fueled by land disputes and broken promises. In 1791, a new treaty reconfirmed the earlier one, ceding part of Cherokee territory to the United States while affirming the tribe’s permanent rights to the remaining territory. Despite these agreements, westward expansion continued, and between 1790 and 1819, thousands of Cherokee began to leave their ancestral lands, becoming known as the Chickamauga. Led by Chief Dragging Canoe, the Chickamauga formed alliances with the Shawnee and engaged in raids against colonial settlements, often aided by the British, further escalating tensions and conflicts.
John Ross emerged as a pivotal figure in Cherokee history. His father, a Scottish immigrant, and his mother, of Cherokee descent, shaped his unique perspective and prepared him for leadership. Ross began his public career in 1809. The "Cherokee Nation," still permitted under the Constitution, was formally established in 1820, with elected public officials representing the will of the people. The Cherokee established a republican governmental system modeled on that of the United States, featuring an elected principal chief, a senate, and a house of representatives. In 1827, they drafted a constitution, solidifying their self-governance and asserting their sovereignty. John Ross served as the principal chief until his death, guiding the nation through a period of immense challenges and transformations.
The discovery of valuable gold deposits on tribal lands in northwestern Georgia, eastern Tennessee, and southwestern North Carolina further intensified the pressure on the Cherokee. This discovery fueled a land rush and increased demands for the removal of the Cherokee to open up the territory for exploitation.
In 1819, the state of Georgia appealed to the U.S. government to remove the Cherokee from Georgia lands, seeking to seize control of their territory. When the appeal was unsuccessful, attempts were made to purchase the land, but the Cherokee Nation enacted a law forbidding any such sale, with the punishment of death, underscoring their determination to protect their ancestral homeland.
Since Thomas Jefferson’s presidency, the U.S. government had pursued a policy of encouraging Native Americans to assimilate into American society, adopting European customs and institutions. This meant settling in one place, farming the land, dividing communal land into private property, and adopting democracy.
In 1828, the Georgia legislature outlawed the Cherokee government and confiscated tribal lands, asserting its authority over Cherokee territory. President Andrew Jackson rejected Cherokee appeals for federal protection, signaling a betrayal of treaty obligations and setting the stage for the forced removal.
By 1830, the "Five Civilized Tribes," including the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminole, and Cherokee, still resided east of the Mississippi River. Despite the assimilation efforts of the Cherokee, their position remained precarious. Some viewed their presence as a threat to peace and security, citing their past alliances with foreign powers during wars against the United States. Other white settlers and land speculators coveted the land occupied by the tribes, fueling the desire for their removal.
State governments sought to extend their jurisdiction over tribal lands, undermining tribal sovereignty. When Georgia moved to enforce state laws on Cherokee territory, the Cherokee challenged the state in the U.S. Supreme Court. The Court ruled that while Indian tribes were not sovereign nations, state laws had no force on tribal lands, affirming the principle of tribal sovereignty.
However, President Andrew Jackson defied the Court’s decision and enacted the Indian Removal Act in 1830, granting the government the authority to negotiate removal treaties with the various tribes. The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek with the Choctaw was the first such removal treaty implemented. While around 7,000 Choctaw remained in Mississippi, approximately 14,000 were forced to move along the Red River to lands west of the Mississippi.
In 1835, approximately 500 leading Cherokee, a minority faction, agreed in the Treaty of New Echota to cede tribal territory in exchange for $5,700,000 and land in the Indian Territory (now Oklahoma). The vast majority of the Cherokee people rejected this treaty, and several of its signatories were later assassinated for their role in the agreement.
In 1838, federal troops began forcibly evicting the Cherokee from their homes. Approximately 1,000 Cherokee escaped to the North Carolina mountains, seeking refuge from the removal. Those who lived on individually owned land, rather than tribal domains, were initially exempt from removal. These individuals eventually formed tribal groups based in North Carolina, including the Eastern Band of Cherokee.
Most of the Cherokee were driven west approximately 800 miles in a forced march known as the Trail of Tears, a term that encapsulates the immense suffering and loss endured by the Cherokee people. An estimated 4,000 perished due to hunger, disease, exposure, and attacks by bandits during the journey or in stockades awaiting removal. Others died after arriving in the Indian Territory from disease or food shortages. This devastating event remains a stain on American history and a testament to the injustice inflicted upon the Cherokee.
Samuel Carter, author of Cherokee Sunset, vividly described the horrors of the removal in his 1976 book: "Then… there came the reign of terror. From the jagged-walled stockades, the troops fanned out across the Nation, invading every hamlet, every cabin, rooting out the inhabitants at bayonet point. The Cherokee hardly had time to realize what was happening as they were prodded like so many sheep toward the concentration camps, threatened with knives and pistols, beaten with rifle butts if they resisted."
The five tribes were resettled in the new Indian Territory, located in modern-day Oklahoma and parts of Kansas. The Cherokee reorganized their government under Chief John Ross and became known as the Western Band or the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma.
Tensions ran high in the Indian Territory, and the suspension of the Cherokee Blood Law, which prohibited the unauthorized sale of tribal lands, was ignored. On June 22, 1839, after the adjournment of a tribal meeting, some of the prominent signers of the Treaty of New Echota were assassinated, including Major Ridge, John Ridge, and Elias Boudinot. This act of violence ignited a 15-year civil war among the Cherokee, further destabilizing the nation and exacerbating the divisions caused by the removal.
During the American Civil War (1861-1865), the Cherokee, after a period of internal conflict, sided with the Confederacy. Stand Watie became a Confederate general, leading Cherokee forces in battle.
Other Cherokee in western North Carolina served as part of Thomas’ Legion, a unit composed of approximately 1,100 men of both Cherokee and white origin. They fought primarily in Virginia, where their battle record was noteworthy. Thomas’ Legion was the last Confederate unit to surrender in North Carolina, at Waynesville on May 9, 1865.
A postwar treaty with the United States freed the black slaves belonging to tribal members in Indian Territory. Under the General Allotment Act of 1887, resisted by the Cherokee, plots of tribal land were forcibly allotted to individual members. The federal government parceled out surplus lands not assigned to Cherokee individuals, and in 1891, the tribe’s western land extension, the Cherokee Strip or Cherokee Outlet, was sold to the United States. In 1893, it was opened to non-Indian settlers in a famous land run, further diminishing Cherokee land holdings and undermining their sovereignty.
The Cherokee government was dissolved, and its people became U.S. citizens when Oklahoma achieved statehood in 1907. The Oklahoma Cherokee lost their right to elect their chiefs and were appointed by the President until 1970, when they regained this right through a Congressional Act signed by President Nixon. W. W. Keeler was the first elected chief of the Oklahoma Cherokee, followed by Ross Swimmer, Wilma Mankiller, Joe Byrd, Chad Smith, and Bill John Baker.
Today, the federally recognized tribal headquarters of the Keetowah Band of Cherokee is located in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, while the Eastern Band of Cherokee is headquartered in Cherokee, North Carolina. State-recognized Cherokee tribes have headquarters in Georgia and Alabama. Other Cherokee organizations are located in Arkansas, Missouri, Tennessee, and other locations in the United States.
The Cherokee people remain one of the largest tribes in the United States, and many Americans of all backgrounds claim Cherokee ancestry, reflecting the widespread impact of Cherokee culture and history.
The old ways, including traditional crafts, are most strongly preserved by the Eastern Band, some of whom continue to live on the Qualla Reservation in North Carolina. The quality of North Carolina Cherokee basketry is considered exceptional. Farming, forestry, and factory work provide income for the Eastern Cherokee.
In 1984, the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma and the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians met in a joint council for the first time in a century and a half, symbolizing a renewed sense of unity and cooperation. Since then, these two groups have held a joint council every two years. Smaller Cherokee groups without federal recognition reside in several Southern states.
In the 2000 U.S. census, approximately 281,000 people identified themselves as Cherokee only, while an additional 448,000 people reported being part Cherokee. An estimated 12,000 to 22,000 people speak the Cherokee language, highlighting the ongoing efforts to preserve and revitalize their cultural heritage.