Chief John Ross of the Cherokee Nation
Born amidst the burgeoning American frontier, John Ross, a man of both Scottish and Cherokee descent, emerged as a pivotal figure in the history of the Cherokee Nation. His life, spanning from October 3, 1790, to August 1, 1866, was a testament to resilience, diplomacy, and unwavering dedication to his people. He was born in Turkeytown, Alabama. He served as the longest-serving Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, a title that would define his legacy. Beyond his political role, he was also a successful businessman and landowner, demonstrating a keen understanding of the economic realities facing his nation.
His most enduring association is undoubtedly his leadership during the tragic forced removal of the Cherokee from their ancestral lands, an event known as the Trail of Tears. This harrowing journey, marked by immense suffering and loss, tested the very fabric of the Cherokee Nation, and Chief John Ross of the Cherokee Nation stood at its helm, guiding his people through unimaginable hardship.
Daniel Ross, John’s father, was a Scotsman who integrated into Cherokee society during the tumultuous years of the American Revolution. His mother was of mixed heritage, three-quarters Scottish and one-quarter Cherokee, further illustrating the complex cultural landscape of the time. Recognizing the importance of education, Daniel established a school near Chattanooga Creek, at the foot of Lookout Mountain, where young John received his early schooling. He later attended schools in Kingston, Tennessee, and the Maryville, Tennessee Academy, receiving a well-rounded education that would serve him well in his future endeavors.
Despite being only one-eighth Cherokee by blood, Chief John Ross of the Cherokee Nation identified deeply with his Native American heritage. He was profoundly affected by the violence and instability that characterized the American frontier, witnessing firsthand the conflicts between settlers and indigenous populations. These experiences shaped his worldview and fueled his commitment to protecting the rights and interests of the Cherokee people.
In 1809, at the young age of 19, John Ross embarked on his first official mission for the U.S. government. Sent by Indian Agent Return J. Meigs to the Western Cherokee in Arkansas, his mission was a resounding success. His calm demeanor and diplomatic skills inspired confidence among both the Cherokee and the white settlers, paving the way for further opportunities. This early display of leadership and diplomatic prowess foreshadowed his future role as a negotiator and advocate for his people.
The War of 1812 saw John Ross serving as an adjutant in the Cherokee regiment. The Cherokee warriors fought bravely alongside the Americans, yet they were not granted the same recognition or rights as their white counterparts. This disparity highlighted the complex and often fraught relationship between the Cherokee Nation and the U.S. government.
He continued his military service in the Creek War of 1813-14, fighting alongside General Andrew Jackson and a thousand other Cherokee warriors. As a Lieutenant, he participated in the pivotal Battle of Horseshoe Bend, where the Creek Indians, allied with the British, were decisively defeated. The victory, however, did little to alleviate the growing pressure on the Cherokee to cede their lands.
In 1815, John Ross partnered with Timothy Meigs to establish a trading post on the Tennessee River in Chattanooga. The post, known as Ross’s Landing, quickly became a vital commercial hub, facilitating trade and transportation in the region. A ferry service was also established to transport goods and people across the river. The arrival of Congregationalist missionaries, descendants of the Puritans, led to the establishment of the Brainerd Mission at Ross’s Landing. Recognizing the value of education, Ross actively supported the missionaries in their efforts to provide schooling for Cherokee youth.
His reputation as an astute and respected figure led to his relocation to Georgia in 1817, where he was elected as a member of the Cherokee Nation Council. This marked the beginning of his formal political career. That same year, the U.S. government, in disregard of the 1802 treaty guaranteeing the Cherokee perpetual rights to their land, demanded that the Cherokee cede all lands north of the Hiwassee River and relocate west. This demand foreshadowed the escalating conflict over land that would ultimately culminate in the Trail of Tears.
In 1819, Ross was elected president of the National Cherokee Committee, a position he held until 1826. During his tenure, he and Major John Ridge, the speaker of the Cherokee National Council, established a capital for the Cherokee Nation near present-day Calhoun, Georgia, in 1825. This act symbolized the Cherokee’s commitment to self-governance and their determination to maintain their sovereignty.
He then served as Assistant Chief of the Eastern Cherokee and played a key role in drafting the Cherokee Constitution in 1827. Modeled after the U.S. Constitution, the Cherokee Constitution established a system of government with a Senate and a House of Representatives. In 1828, Chief John Ross of the Cherokee Nation was elected Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, a position he would hold until his death in 1866.
Beyond his political activities, Ross was a successful businessman, involved in various ventures. He owned a 200-acre farm and, like many prominent figures of the time, owned slaves. This aspect of his life, while reflecting the social and economic realities of the era, remains a point of controversy and scrutiny.
For the next decade, Ross dedicated himself to resisting the encroachment of white settlers on Cherokee lands. Eschewing violence, he employed legal and political strategies, utilizing the press and the courts to advocate for the Cherokee cause.
The discovery of gold in White County, Georgia, in 1828 dramatically intensified the pressure on the Cherokee. The state of Georgia began to aggressively pursue the removal of the Indians, outlawing the Cherokee government and confiscating tribal lands. The Cherokee appealed to the federal government for protection, but their pleas were ignored.
Despite winning several favorable court rulings, these victories proved to be hollow. President Andrew Jackson, Ross’s former comrade, authorized the Indian Removal Act of 1830. This act paved the way for the forced removal of the Cherokee and other tribes from their ancestral lands.
The Jackson Administration began pressuring the Cherokee and other tribes to sign removal treaties, but the Cherokee, under Ross’s leadership, steadfastly refused. However, after Jackson’s reelection in 1832, some Cherokee, led by Major John Ridge and Stand Watie, came to believe that removal was inevitable and that it was in the best interest of the Cherokee Nation to negotiate the most favorable terms possible with the U.S. government. This faction, known as the Treaty Party, began unauthorized talks with the Jackson administration.
Chief John Ross of the Cherokee Nation and the majority of the Cherokee people remained adamantly opposed to removal. In 1832, Ross canceled the tribal elections, and the Council impeached Ridge. Tensions escalated, and a member of the Ridge Party was murdered. The Treaty Party responded by forming their own council, representing only a small minority of the Cherokee people. Both the Ross government and the Ridge Party sent independent delegations to Washington.
In the end, a small faction of the Cherokee, numbering around 500, signed the Treaty of New Echota in 1835, ceding Cherokee lands in exchange for $5,700,000 and new lands in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma). Despite the fact that the treaty was repudiated by over nine-tenths of the tribe and was not signed by a single elected tribal official, Congress ratified the treaty on May 23, 1836.
Chief Ross and the Cherokee National Council denounced the treaty as fraudulent and presented a petition with over 15,000 Cherokee signatures to Congress in the spring of 1838. Many white settlers were also outraged by the treaty’s questionable legality. Ralph Waldo Emerson appealed to President Martin Van Buren, Jackson’s successor, urging him not to inflict "so vast an outrage upon the Cherokee Nation."
Their pleas, however, fell on deaf ears. In 1838, the Cherokee were forcibly removed from their homes and forced to march to Indian Territory on the Trail of Tears. The 2,200-mile journey was fraught with hardship, disease, and death. Thousands of Cherokee perished along the way, including Chief John Ross’s wife, Quatie. While the federal government officially recorded 424 deaths, estimates from those who witnessed the tragedy suggest that the true number of fatalities was far higher, perhaps as many as 8,000.
Upon arriving in Indian Territory, near present-day Tahlequah, Oklahoma, John Ross was reelected Principal Chief. Tragically, Major Ridge was assassinated the same day for violating the law prohibiting the unauthorized sale of Cherokee land. The Cherokee Nation began the arduous task of rebuilding their society, establishing schools, a newspaper, and a new capital.
During the Civil War, the Cherokee, under considerable pressure and divided loyalties, aligned themselves with the Confederacy. This decision, in part, reflected a repudiation of treaties previously signed with the Federal Government.
In September 1865, Ross attended the Grand Council of Southern Indians at Fort Smith, Arkansas, where new treaties were negotiated between the Cherokee and the Federal government. In July 1866, despite his failing health, he accompanied a delegation to Washington, D.C., where new treaties were signed on July 19, 1866. Shortly after the treaties were signed, Ross fell ill and died at the Medes Hotel in Washington, D.C., on August 1, 1866. He was initially buried beside his wife Mary in Wilmington, Delaware, but his body was later returned to Indian Territory and interred at Ross Cemetery in Park Hill, Oklahoma.
Chief John Ross of the Cherokee Nation dedicated his life to the service of his people, navigating the treacherous political landscape of the 19th century. His legacy remains a complex and controversial one, but his unwavering commitment to the Cherokee Nation, even in the face of overwhelming adversity, ensures his place in history as a significant leader. He is still celebrated among Cherokee descendants.