Chinookan People – Legends of America
The Chinookan peoples, a collective term for several distinct groups of Native Americans, represent a significant chapter in the rich tapestry of the Pacific Northwest. United by their closely related Chinookan languages, these communities historically thrived in the regions now known as Washington and Oregon, their territories stretching from the mouth of the majestic Columbia River to the area around The Dalles.
A Sedentary Lifestyle Along the Columbia
Unlike some nomadic tribes, the Chinookan people were relatively settled, establishing villages along the fertile banks of the Columbia River and near the confluence of its numerous tributaries. These villages varied in size, ranging from small hamlets with just a few houses to more substantial settlements. Regardless of size, each village had a headman or chief, whose influence sometimes extended to neighboring communities. However, for the most part, each settlement maintained its independence and autonomy.
The Chinookan lifestyle was intricately linked to the abundant natural resources of their environment. Men expertly hunted elk, deer, and bear in the surrounding forests, while fishing, particularly for salmon, formed the cornerstone of their diet. The women played a vital role in gathering and processing a diverse array of edible plants, including nuts, seeds, roots, and berries, ensuring a balanced and nutritious food supply for their families.
During the warmer months, the Chinookan people would embark on seasonal expeditions to exploit additional hunting and fishing opportunities further afield. The falls and cascades of the Columbia River, as well as the falls of the Willamette River, served as key gathering points during the crucial salmon season, attracting people from various villages to participate in communal fishing activities.
Longhouses: Communal Dwellings
The Chinookan people lived in impressive longhouses, communal dwellings that housed extended families, often numbering 50 individuals or more. These longhouses were constructed using sturdy planks of red cedar, a readily available and durable material. The structures typically measured between 20 and 60 feet in width and 50 to 150 feet in length, providing ample space for multiple families to live and work. Inside the longhouses, residents slept on comfortable reed mats placed over raised wooden boards, offering protection from the damp ground and creating a cozy sleeping environment.
Limited Territorial Conflict
The relatively settled lifestyle of the Chinookan people, combined with the abundance of natural resources within their territories, resulted in minimal conflict over land with neighboring tribes. Their established patterns of resource utilization and the absence of large-scale migrations through each other’s territories contributed to a peaceful coexistence among the various coastal tribes.
Masters of Trade and Craftsmanship
The Chinookan people were renowned for their exceptional skills in canoe building, navigation, trade, fishing, and even rudimentary planting. They possessed an intricate understanding of the rivers and waterways, enabling them to construct sturdy and seaworthy canoes from single logs, often of considerable size. These canoes were not only essential for transportation and fishing but also served as vital tools for trade.
The Chinookan people established extensive trade networks that stretched as far as the Great Plains, exchanging valuable goods such as dried fish, slaves, canoes, shells, and decorative items like hair and clothing ornaments. The annual trade fair held at The Dalles was the largest of its kind in Western North America, facilitating the exchange of goods and ideas between various tribes. The Chinookan people controlled the movement of materials between the coast and the fair, further solidifying their position as key intermediaries in the regional trade network.
Social Stratification
Chinookan society was characterized by a distinct social hierarchy, with the population divided into different classes. The upper classes, a minority of the community, consisted of shamans, warriors, and successful traders who held considerable power and influence. These elites practiced social discrimination, limiting contact with commoners and even discouraging play between children from different social groups.
One unique practice among the elite of some Chinookan tribes was head binding, a custom in which infants’ foreheads and skulls were flattened to signify their elevated social status. This was achieved by applying pressure to the infant’s head using boards, starting around three months of age and continuing until the child was about one year old. Individuals with flattened heads were considered to be of higher rank than those with round heads and were even exempt from enslavement. Early white explorers later referred to these people as "Flathead Indians."
Slaves occupied the lowest rung of Chinookan society. They were typically acquired through barter with neighboring tribes or through successful raids. Some historians estimate that slaves may have constituted as much as 25% of the total population in the region. Free individuals were divided into a powerful elite and commoners who were household members but held little or no power.
Religion and Spirituality
Traditional Chinookan religion was deeply intertwined with the natural world and emphasized the importance of maintaining harmony with the environment. A central practice was the first-salmon rite, an annual ritual in which each group welcomed the arrival of the salmon run, expressing gratitude for the bounty and ensuring the continuation of this vital resource.
Another significant aspect of Chinookan spirituality was the individual vision quest, a rite of passage undertaken by adolescent males and some females. During this ordeal, individuals sought to acquire a guardian spirit that would bestow upon them hunting, curing, or other powers, bring them good luck, or teach them songs and dances. Public singing ceremonies were held to showcase these gifts and celebrate the connection between individuals and their guardian spirits.
Early Encounters with Outsiders
Early accounts of the Chinookan people often described them as treacherous and deceitful, particularly when motivated by greed. The portages at the Cascades and The Dalles, essential for navigating the Columbia River, were often fraught with difficulties and dangers for early traders and settlers due to interactions with some Chinookan individuals.
By the late 1700s, Spanish, American, and British voyagers frequently encountered the Chinookan tribes, marking the beginning of increased contact with the outside world.
The Chinookan people were documented by American explorers Lewis and Clark during their expedition in 1805 and again upon their return journey in 1806.
In the fall of 1805, as the Corps of Discovery made their way down the Columbia River after traversing the Rocky Mountains, they were informed by the Nez Perce that the Chinookan people had a distinct culture and language. The Nez Perce chiefs also warned the captains of a rumor that the Chinook intended to harm the Americans. Nevertheless, the expedition continued.
The Chinookan people were familiar with European goods and white traders, and their initial encounters with the expedition were peaceful. On October 26, 1805, two Chinook chiefs and several men visited the expedition’s camp, offering gifts of deer meat and root bread cakes. The captains reciprocated by presenting the chiefs with medals and the men with trinkets.
However, as the expedition approached the Pacific Ocean, incidents of theft became a recurring problem, leading to tensions between the explorers and the Chinookan people.
Decline and Resilience
In 1824-25, devastating epidemics, such as smallpox and malaria, swept through the Northwest Coast Native populations, decimating entire villages. By 1830, communities near Fort Vancouver were largely abandoned, and Chinook Chief Comcomly succumbed to a fever epidemic that struck his tribe that year.
The influx of missionaries in the 1830s led to the establishment of missions among the Chinook of the Lower Columbia. In 1844, another epidemic, dysentery, ravaged the Northwest. By the following year, the number of missionaries and traders surpassed the indigenous population as immigration continued and Native populations were decimated by disease. By 1850, it is estimated that only about 4,000 Chinook survived.
Treaties with the Chinook and other tribes began in 1851, but Congress never ratified them, resulting in the illegal acquisition of their lands for settlement.
In the subsequent decades, the tribes were pushed onto reservations. The Chinook hired its first lawyers to fight for land rights in 1899, as the U.S. Government never compensated the tribes for the lands they took. Their legal battles continue in various forms today as the Chinook push the U.S. Government to honor their promises.
In 1911, the Chinook received allotments, and the reservations were broken up. By this time, there were only about 1,000 Chinook remaining.
Today, some Chinookan-speaking people are part of federally recognized tribes, including the Yakama Nation, the Confederated Tribes of the Warm Springs Reservation, the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community, and the Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians Indians. However, the Chinook Indian Nation, consisting of the five westernmost Tribes of Chinookan peoples, including the Lower Chinook, Clatsop, Willapa, Wahkiakum, and Cathlamet, are still working to obtain federal recognition.
Despite the numerous challenges they have faced, the Chinookan people have demonstrated remarkable resilience and determination to preserve their cultural heritage and fight for their rights. The Chinook Indian Nation continues its efforts to secure federal recognition, conducting research and developing documentation to demonstrate its history and cultural continuity.
The tribe holds an Annual Winter Gathering at the plank house in Ridgefield, Washington, and an Annual First Salmon Ceremony at Chinook Point (Fort Columbia) on the North Shore of the Columbia River.