Combatants of the Civil War
By William Charles Henry Wood, 1921.
The American Civil War, a tumultuous period in the nation’s history, pitted brother against brother and state against state. Understanding the complexities of this conflict requires a careful examination of the combatants, their motivations, and the resources at their disposal. This analysis delves into the composition of the opposing forces, the geographical divisions, and the factors that ultimately shaped the outcome of this devastating struggle. A key element of understanding the Combatants of the Civil War is recognizing that the lines of allegiance were not always clear-cut, and internal divisions existed within both the North and the South.
The map of the United States during the Civil War era reveals a nation fractured. Eleven states formally seceded from the Union, forming the Confederate States of America: Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas. However, this secession was not universally embraced within these states. The mountainous regions of western Virginia and eastern Tennessee, populated by independent-minded individuals, remained staunchly loyal to the Union. This loyalty ultimately led to the creation of West Virginia as a separate state during the war, a testament to the deep divisions even within the Confederacy. The narrative of the Combatants of the Civil War is incomplete without acknowledging the internal conflicts that shaped the loyalties of individuals and communities.
Furthermore, the "border states" of Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, and Kansas presented a unique challenge. Officially remaining within the Union, these states were nevertheless deeply divided in their allegiances. Sympathies for the Southern cause ran high in many areas, and citizens from these states fought on both sides of the conflict. Maryland, only kept in the Union by a heavy Federal military presence and the lack of a convenient land border with the Confederacy, teetered on the brink of secession. Kentucky declared neutrality for several months before ultimately siding with the Union. Missouri was secured for the Union through the decisive actions of Unionist leaders like Nathaniel Lyon and Francis Preston Blair, Jr. Kansas, though largely Unionist, still harbored Confederate sympathizers along its southern border. This complex tapestry of loyalties within the border states highlights the nuanced nature of the Combatants of the Civil War.
As the war progressed, the Union gradually gained influence in the border regions, while the Confederacy retained support primarily in the western parts of Virginia and eastern Tennessee. Pockets of Union sentiment also existed along the Southern coast, demonstrating the absence of a monolithic Confederate identity. In essence, the Civil War was a conflict that transcended simple geographical boundaries, reaching into the hearts and minds of individuals across the nation.
Considering the elimination of those Northerners who fought for the confederacy and Southerners who fought for the Union, the South possessed one significant advantage: a more unified populace in favor of the war. Once secession became a reality, an overwhelming majority – perhaps nine-tenths – of Southern whites were ardent supporters of the Confederacy. Dissenting voices were largely silenced. The South, characterized by its simpler, more homogenous communities rooted in long-established traditions, displayed a greater propensity for collective action once their passions were ignited. The Combatants of the Civil War were not just armies on the battlefield; they were societies mobilized for a cause.
In contrast, the North, with its more complex and heterogeneous population, struggled with internal divisions and a persistent peace movement. This peace party, like a noxious weed, hampered the Union war effort. The North contained recent immigrants, uninclined to risk their lives for a cause they did not fully understand. The North also held naturalized citizens, and even American-born individuals, who were culturally distinct and alienated from the dominant society. Additionally, there were those opposed to any form of war government, regardless of its composition. Economic ties between some Northerners and the South, particularly those involved in financing cotton and tobacco crops, further complicated matters.
These dissenting elements manifested in various forms. Some engaged in endless debates, believing that any issue could be resolved through endless discussion. Others were "defeatist" critics, predisposed to believing their side was always wrong. There were also outright "pacifists" who believed everyone was wrong except themselves. Finally, there were those who actively evaded their civic responsibilities, especially when they involved personal risk. These individuals thrived in the anonymity of large, complex populations, sometimes even masquerading as patriots. These factors hindered the war effort. The Combatants of the Civil War on the Union side were significantly hampered by internal dissent and lack of unity.
Many of these individuals formed clandestine societies, engaging in theatrical displays that undermined the gravity of the war. These groups not only swore silly oaths but also actively disrupted Lincoln’s last election. Some even attempted political assassinations in the North and lured Confederate soldiers to their deaths with false promises of a "Free Northwest" uprising, which never materialized during raids like Morgan’s Raid.
The peace party adopted the copper coin as its symbol, earning them the moniker "Copperheads," much to the chagrin of their more flamboyant members, who preferred the title "Sons of Liberty." Pro-war proponents aptly likened "Copperheads" to venomous snakes hiding in the grass. This stark contrast in symbols and rhetoric underscored the deep divisions within the Northern population.
The Native American population would have preferred to maintain neutrality in the conflict between the North and South, as both sides inevitably sought to displace them from their lands. However, neutrality proved impossible in the American West. Ultimately, fewer than ten thousand Native Americans fought for either side. They generally excelled as skirmishers, but were vulnerable to artillery fire.
The African American population, significantly larger than the Native American population, played a far more crucial role. The North encouraged the recruitment of African Americans into labor battalions and, later, into combat units, particularly after the Emancipation Proclamation. However, the vast majority of African Americans, whether enslaved or free, remained with their Southern masters, serving them faithfully in military labor roles or on plantations. Given the Southern Black population was three and a half million, this widespread loyalty was a considerable asset to the Confederate war effort. The role of African Americans is essential to consider when analyzing the Combatants of the Civil War.
In 1861, the United States population stood at approximately thirty-one and a half million. The North held twenty-two and a half million people, while the South held nine million. These numbers translate to a 5:2 ratio in favor of the North. Excluding the enslaved population, the ratio shifts to 4:1, with twenty-two million whites in the North compared to five and a half million in the South.
To accurately gauge the actual fighting strength of each side, it is necessary to factor in the internal divisions caused by peace parties. Subtracting one-tenth of the Southern white population and one-third of the Northern population yields a more accurate war-party ratio of approximately 3:1, with fifteen million in the North and five million in the South.
These statistics shed light on the disparities observed by foreign observers during the war. While the war profoundly altered daily life in the South, the North presented a more complex picture. Alongside unwavering loyalty and heroic sacrifice in the military and at home, foreigners witnessed blatant profiteering and shameless displays of wealth. Theaters remained crowded, and profiteers indulged in their pleasures, seemingly indifferent to the sacrifices of others.
This fundamental difference between patriots and parasites characterized Northern society. It is important to note that not all members of the war party were paragons of virtue, nor were all dissenters inherently malicious. For example, the Union government encouraged settlers to occupy the Western territories, far from the war’s direct impact. Nevertheless, the distinction between those who actively supported the war effort and those who hindered it remained significant.
Despite facing numerous challenges, the Union government effectively channeled the North’s vast and diverse resources against the South’s more limited and less varied resources. The North controlled the national government apparatus, despite losing a substantial number of skilled personnel. Both North and South were agriculturally strong, each possessing abundant food supplies. However, the South’s economic strength lay in cotton and tobacco, commodities that required Northern or overseas markets to generate revenue. The North possessed overwhelming financial strength, especially given its naval blockade, which isolated the South from foreign trade. In manufacturing, the South was severely disadvantaged.
The North’s superior logistical capabilities and manufacturing base allowed it to equip its armies more effectively. Southern soldiers frequently relied on battlefield scavenging to acquire essential supplies. The disparity in resources also impacted the health and well-being of soldiers. Preserved rations, commonplace in the North, were virtually nonexistent in the South, contributing to a higher death rate among Confederate forces.
The North’s naval dominance extended to inland waterways, enabling it to divide the South and control crucial transportation routes. While the South attempted to develop its own naval capabilities, it was ultimately hampered by limited resources and administrative inefficiencies.
The Civil War was a conflict of immense scale and complexity. Understanding the Combatants of the Civil War, their motivations, resources, and internal divisions, is essential for comprehending the war’s course and its lasting impact on American society. The war changed the lives of many people during its time and is remembered today.