Danger and Hardship on the Oregon Trail
"To enjoy such a trip… a man must be able to endure heat like a Salamander, mud, and water like a muskrat, dust like a toad, and labor like a jackass. He must learn to eat with his unwashed fingers, drink out of the same vessel as his mules, sleep on the ground when it rains, share his blanket with vermin, and have patience with mosquitos. He must cease to think, except of where he may find grass and water and a good camping place. It is hardship without glory." – Anonymous Settler writing in the St. Joseph, Missouri Gazette
The Oregon Trail, a ribbon of hope stretching over 2,000 miles, is often romanticized in 19th-century accounts and historical narratives. However, beneath the veneer of adventure lay a stark reality of danger and hardship on the Oregon Trail. This arduous journey west, undertaken by an estimated 350,000 pioneers, was fraught with peril. For every ten who embarked on this ambitious trek, one would not survive, transforming the trail into what some call "this nation’s longest graveyard." The statistics are grim, with approximately 30,000 lives claimed, averaging 10 to 15 deaths per mile.
From 1841 to 1869, the Oregon and California Trails witnessed countless tragedies. Disease, accidents, and the relentless forces of nature emerged as the primary adversaries of these westward-bound emigrants. Let’s explore the harrowing realities that defined danger and hardship on the Oregon Trail.
The Scourge of Disease and Illness
“We did not meet any sickness nor see any fresh graves until we came in on the road from St Joseph. From that out, there was scarcely a day, but we met six and not less than two fresh graves.” – Elizabeth Keegan, 18
Disease was, without a doubt, the most prolific killer along the Oregon Trail. It accounted for the deaths of nine out of ten pioneers who succumbed to its grasp. The harsh conditions of the journey, including extreme weather, a severely limited diet, and relentless exhaustion, significantly weakened the travelers’ immune systems, making them vulnerable to a host of infectious diseases. Cholera, influenza, dysentery, measles, mumps, tuberculosis, and typhoid fever spread like wildfire through wagon trains, decimating entire camps.
The scarcity of opportunities for sanitation, such as bathing and laundering, further exacerbated the problem. Safe drinking water was often unavailable in sufficient quantities, and the proximity of human and animal waste, garbage, and decaying animal carcasses to water sources created a breeding ground for disease.
Cholera, a waterborne illness, emerged as the most feared and deadly of these ailments. Its rapid onset and devastating effects were terrifying. A person could be perfectly healthy in the morning and dead by noon. With no effective cure or treatment available, death typically occurred within 24 hours, though some victims lingered in agony for weeks, confined to the jolting wagons. In particularly severe years, some wagon trains lost as much as two-thirds of their members to this relentless disease.
Food poisoning, stemming from contaminated food, posed another significant threat, particularly among single men who may have lacked the culinary skills or resources to ensure food safety. Scurvy, a debilitating condition caused by a deficiency in Vitamin C, was also common due to the lack of fresh fruits and vegetables in the pioneers’ diet. Furthermore, poisoning from excessively alkaline drinking water added to the health woes of the travelers.
Childbirth on the trail was fraught with peril. Tragedy often accompanied the arrival of a new baby. Death during childbirth was common, and infant mortality rates were alarmingly high. Poor nutrition, inadequate medical care, and unsanitary conditions contributed to these devastating losses. The danger and hardship on the Oregon Trail claimed the lives of mothers and children alike.
“One woman and two men lay dead on the grass and some more ready to die. Women and children were crying, and some were hunting medicine, but none were found. With heartfelt sorrow, we looked around for some time until I felt unwell myself. Got up and moved forward one mile so as to be out of hearing of crying and suffering.” – Emigrant John Clark
Accidents: A Constant Threat
Accidents were a pervasive and often preventable cause of injury and death throughout the Oregon Trail’s history. Negligence, exhaustion, firearms mishaps, and incidents involving animals all contributed to the toll.
Wagon accidents were the most frequent type of incident. Children and adults sometimes fell from or under the wagons, tragically crushed beneath the heavy wheels.
“A little boy fell over the front end of the wagon during our journey. In his case, the great wheels rolled over the child’s head – crushing it to pieces.” – Edward Lenox
Crossing rivers presented another significant hazard. Swollen rivers could easily overturn wagons, leading to the drowning of both people and oxen, as well as the loss of precious supplies and equipment. Animals often panicked in the deep, swift currents, further increasing the risk. Hundreds perished while attempting to cross treacherous rivers such as the Kansas, North Platte, and Columbia Rivers. In 1850 alone, a staggering 37 people drowned while trying to navigate the Green River.
Ferrymen, capitalizing on the emigrants’ desperation, often charged exorbitant fees for their services, sometimes as much as $16 per crossing, nearly the price of an ox. One particularly lucrative ferry operation reportedly earned $65,000 in a single summer, prompting bitter complaints from the travelers.
Over time, the risks associated with river crossings were somewhat mitigated by the construction of bridges and the establishment of more reliable ferry services. However, even with these improvements, accidents continued to occur, with rafts capsizing and improvised bridges collapsing, sending people to their deaths.
“The ferryman allowed too many passengers to get in the boat, and the water came within two inches of the gunwale. He ordered every man to stand steady as the boat was liable to swamp. When we were nearly across the edge of the boat dipped, I thought the boat would be swamped instantly and drowned the last one of us.” – Emigrant John B. Hill
Alcohol consumption occasionally played a role in accidents. One unfortunate incident occurred on June 2, 1853, when an intoxicated emigrant misjudged the depth of the rain-swollen Buffalo Creek and drove his wagon into the water, never to be seen again.
Firearms, while essential for hunting and defense, were the second leading cause of injury and death. Wagon trains were often heavily armed, carrying far more firepower than necessary. In one instance, a 72-wagon train transported 260 pistols and rifles, nearly a ton of lead, and over a thousand pounds of gunpowder. The problem was compounded by the fact that many travelers lacked proper training or experience with firearms, resulting in countless accidental shootings.
The first emigrant to die from an accidental gunshot wound was ironically named John Shotwell, who met his end on May 13, 1841. His death was self-inflicted when he reached for his rifle muzzle-first, causing it to discharge.
Handling domestic animals also posed risks, with travelers being thrown, kicked, or dragged by oxen, horses, and mules. Stampeding livestock caused numerous injuries. Occasionally, individuals who unwisely wandered off alone fell victim to wild animals. On a few occasions, buffalo herds overran wagon trains, causing widespread chaos and injuries.
Other common accidents included cuts, broken bones, burns, and animal, insect, and snake bites. Drowning (especially in the early years before the widespread availability of ferries) and quicksand also claimed lives. These accidental deaths underscored the pervasive danger and hardship on the Oregon Trail.
The Wrath of Weather
“Such sharp and incessant flashes of lightning, such stunning and continuous thunder, I had never known before. The woods were completely obscured by the diagonal sheets of rain that fell with a heavy roar and rose in spray from the ground. The storm ceased as suddenly as it began. The thunder here is not like the tame thunder of the Atlantic coast. Bursting with a terrific crash directly above our heads, it roared over the boundless waste of the prairie, seeming to roll around the whole circle of the firmament with a peculiar and awful reverberation. The lightning flashed all night.” – Francis Parkman, 1846
The unpredictable and often extreme weather conditions along the Oregon Trail posed a constant threat to the emigrants. Thunderstorms, lethal hailstones, lightning strikes, tornadoes, grass fires, and high winds all contributed to the dangers. Lightning strikes claimed the lives of several travelers, while hailstones the size of apples injured many others. Significant snowstorms and severe cold in the Rocky Mountains led to frostbite and death by freezing.
The intense heat on the prairies caused the wood of the wagons to shrink, necessitating nightly soaking in rivers to prevent the iron rims from falling off. The dust on the trail could be several inches deep and as fine as flour, causing discomfort and respiratory problems. Emigrants’ lips blistered and cracked in the dry air, and their only remedy was to apply axle grease. Exposure to the elements claimed the lives of numerous pioneers, highlighting the danger and hardship on the Oregon Trail.
Interactions with American Indians
American Indians were often perceived as a major threat by the emigrants, but in reality, they were typically the least of their problems. Most interactions were peaceful, and many Indians provided valuable assistance to the travelers. Trade was common, with emigrants exchanging clothing and trade goods for fresh or different foods, as well as moccasins to replace worn-out shoes and boots. In some instances, Indians operated ferries made of canoes to help wagons and people cross treacherous rivers, long before white men established their own ferry services and bridges.
However, tales of hostile encounters, often exaggerated and sensationalized, overshadowed the more common instances of peaceful interaction. A few highly publicized massacres further fueled the pioneers’ fears, which were often compounded by trigger-happy emigrants who shot at Indians for target practice or out of unfounded paranoia.
Crime and Punishment
Given the extreme conditions and challenges faced by the emigrants, instances of crime among them were relatively low. However, the absence of formal civil laws, law enforcement, and courts of law meant that wagon trains had to administer their own justice. The military offered limited protection near the forts, but for the most part, the travelers were on their own.
Before even setting out from Missouri, wagon trains typically drafted constitutions to regulate conduct and establish laws to be followed in the wilderness. Minor offenses were usually handled through mediation. More serious crimes, such as murder, rape, and horse theft, were addressed more formally. The emigrants would select a judge, form a jury, and conduct a trial according to the standards they were familiar with. Punishments for these serious offenses ranged from banishment from the wagon train to hanging.
Shootings were not uncommon, and surprisingly, nearly 200 people were murdered on the Oregon-California Trail in the mid-1800s. Only one of these murder victims, Ephraim Brown, lies in a grave with a known location. Brown, a leading figure on a wagon train bound for California, was killed near South Pass, Wyoming, in 1857, in what appears to have been a family dispute.
Other Causes of Death
Starvation was a constant threat, though it more often claimed the lives of draft animals than humans. However, starvation was the primary cause of death for the ill-fated Donner-Reed Party of 1846, which became stranded in the high Sierras due to an early snowfall. Thirty-five members of the party died, and many of the 47 survivors resorted to cannibalism to stay alive.
“Looked starvation in the face. I have seen men on passing an animal that has starved to death on the plains, stop and cut out a steak, roast and eat it and call it delicious.” – Clark Thompson, 1850
The immense stress of the journey, coupled with sickness and other hardships, sometimes led to suicides. Sharp instruments, falling objects, buffalo hunts, and other unforeseen calamities also resulted in deaths.
Children were particularly vulnerable. On occasion, young emigrants would straggle behind, wander off while looking for flowers or berries, or attempt to hunt while traveling. While many made their way back to their camps, some were thought to have fallen prey to wild animals or Indians and were left behind.
During these perilous times, travelers often left warning messages for those following behind, alerting them to outbreaks of disease, contaminated water sources, or the presence of hostile Indians.
Over time, conditions along the Oregon Trail gradually improved. Bridges and ferries were constructed to make river crossings safer. Settlements and supply posts sprung up along the route, providing weary travelers with opportunities to restock supplies, have their horses shod, trade with Indians, and rest and regroup.
Trail guides wrote guidebooks to assist settlers on their journey, eliminating the need for a personal escort. However, not all of these books were accurate, and some settlers became lost and ran dangerously low on provisions.
Other Hardships
In addition to the dangers and death along the Oregon Trail, pioneers faced a host of other hardships. The journey west was not for the faint of heart, with challenges ranging from the relatively minor, such as boredom, to the constant irritation of dust kicked up by the feet of hundreds of oxen.
The overlanders encountered their first hardship even before leaving home. Saying goodbye to friends and family was incredibly difficult, knowing that they would likely never see them again.
“When Grandmother learned the next morning that they were then on their way, she kneeled down and prayed that God would guard and protect them on their perilous journey.” – Henry Garrison describing his uncle’s parting from Iowa
They also had to leave behind cherished keepsakes and heirlooms, as each family was limited to the amount of supplies and belongings they could pack into their covered wagons, which offered just over 80 square feet of space for the entire journey. Later, many of the items they had deemed too precious to leave behind in the East would be abandoned along the trail to lighten the load for their weary oxen.
As the road beyond Fort Laramie began to climb into the Rocky Mountains, the wagons had to be lightened to keep the animals moving. The trail was soon littered with items that had seemed like treasures in Missouri but were now impossible to keep.
“We passed today the nearly consumed fragments of about a dozen wagons that had been broken up and burned by their owners: and near them was piled up, in one heap, from six to eight hundred weight of bacon, thrown away for want of means to transport it further. Boxes, bonnets, trunks, wagon wheels, whole wagon bodies, cooking utensils, and, in fact, almost every article of household furniture were found.” – Captain Howard Stansbury, 1852
With their wagons packed full of necessities, nearly everyone, many barefoot, walked alongside their herds of cattle and sheep. The tiring pace of the journey, averaging about 15 miles per day, often resulted in exhaustion and general weakness.
Travelers often underestimated the amount of supplies they would need, forcing them to ration their food. The Whitman Party in 1836, for example, had to subsist on dried buffalo meat. Shortages of spare wagon parts and even clothing were also common.
Boredom was a frequent problem, especially during the 427-mile stretch across Nebraska. Many pioneers complained about the unchanging landscape, prompting one early traveler to remark that he hoped the Indians would attack to relieve the monotony. After crossing most of Nebraska, the pioneers were thrilled to reach the landmarks of Courthouse Rock, Chimney Rock, and Scotts Bluff.
"Go-backs" and Turnarounds
The hardships and homesickness experienced along the Oregon Trail led approximately one in ten emigrants to turn back. These individuals were known as "go-backs" or "turnarounds." Some only made it as far as the jumping-off points along the Missouri River, where the costs of the trip proved prohibitive or they were scared off by the stories they heard. Others ventured further down the trail before deciding to return.
Mary Ellen Todd, who left Arkansas for Oregon in 1852, claimed that of the 100 wagons that began the trip, 96 turned around after traveling a considerable distance.
In 1850, Oregon Trail pioneer Seth Lewelling encountered a 300-wagon caravan retreating from St. Joseph, Missouri, one of the primary jumping-off towns. The wagon train had insufficient provisions to cover the entire trail.
In 1850, a drought along the trail, coupled with high traffic, caused several wagons to return.
In 1852, Ezra and Eliza Jane Meeker reported meeting 11 wagons moving slowly east against the traffic flow. That group had made it as far as Fort Laramie, Wyoming, before losing the last of its menfolk. The wagons, driven by women, were returning in hopes of regaining their homes in the East.
These "go-backs" were a significant source of information about the wonders, dangers, and disappointments that lay ahead on the trail.
Despite the hardships of the experience, few emigrants ever regretted their decision to move west.
“Those who crossed the plains…never forgot the ungratified thirst, the intense heat and bitter cold, the craving hunger and utter physical exhaustion of the trail…But there was another side. True, they had suffered, but the satisfaction of deeds accomplished and difficulties overcome more than compensated and made the overland passage a thing never to be forgotten.” – An Emigrant Pioneer
The danger and hardship on the Oregon Trail were undeniable, yet the promise of a new life in the West proved to be a powerful motivator, driving countless individuals to persevere through unimaginable adversity.