Drugs in the Old West
The romanticized image of the Old West often conjures visions of saloons, gunfights, and cowboys, but beneath the surface of this iconic era lies a less-discussed aspect: the pervasive use of various substances. While alcohol, particularly "firewater" and "white lightning," is the first thing that often springs to mind when considering intoxication in the Wild West, a range of other drugs, including morphine, cocaine, cannabis, heroin, and other narcotics, were readily available and widely consumed. These substances were legal, easily purchased over the counter, and frequently prescribed by doctors for a multitude of ailments, even for children. When coupled with the existence of opium dens, the prevalence of patent medicines containing potent ingredients, and the accessibility of laudanum, it is remarkable that more pioneers did not succumb to overdoses. The story of Drugs in the Old West is one of unregulated access, widespread self-medication, and a gradual awakening to the dangers of addiction.
Opiates: A History of Pain Relief and Peril
The use of opium dates back millennia, with the earliest records tracing its cultivation to lower Mesopotamia (Southwest Asia) around 3400 B.C. The Sumerians, who referred to the opium poppy as "Hul Gil," or the "joy plant," recognized its euphoric and pain-relieving properties. From there, the knowledge of opium spread to the Assyrians, then to the Egyptians, and eventually to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Physicians in these civilizations valued opium as a powerful pain reliever, a sleep aid, and a remedy for bowel issues. Its pleasurable effects were also well-documented, contributing to its increasing popularity.
As the understanding of opium’s potential benefits grew, so did the demand for it. Numerous countries began cultivating and processing opium to increase its availability and reduce its cost. Its cultivation spread along the Silk Road, traveling from the Mediterranean region through Asia and eventually reaching China around 700 A.D. By the 1600s, smoking opium had become a common practice in China, and by the 1800s, it was deeply ingrained in the culture. The narrative of Drugs in the Old West begins long before the American frontier, with roots in ancient practices.
The introduction of opiates to America is believed to have occurred in 1620, with the arrival of physician Samuel Fuller on the Mayflower. It is likely that Fuller carried an early form of laudanum, an opium and alcohol mixture that originated in the 16th century, in his medical kit. Laudanum, like other opiates, was an effective painkiller, an anti-diarrheal medication, and a sleep inducer. It was also used to treat a wide range of ailments, including colds, fevers, consumption (tuberculosis), insomnia, and stomach disorders.
By the time of the American Revolution, laudanum was a commonplace medical tool used by several prominent figures. Patrick Henry was rumored to be an addict, while Benjamin Franklin used it to alleviate the pain caused by his gout. Even Thomas Jefferson, who was generally skeptical of medical treatments, turned to laudanum in his later years to ease his chronic diarrhea. Drugs in the Old West were not limited to the lower classes; they touched all echelons of society.
Opium contains more than 25 derivatives that have been used in medicine, the most well-known of which is morphine. Morphine, named after Morpheus, the Greek god of sleep, was first isolated in 1803. However, its adoption as a painkiller was initially slow because its effectiveness was limited when taken orally. While it was sometimes added to whiskey to enhance its effects, morphine did not reach its full potential until the invention of the hypodermic syringe in the 1850s.
During the Civil War, opium and morphine were widely used as painkillers. In the early years of the war, they were typically administered as pills, mixed with alcohol to create laudanum, or applied as a powder directly to open wounds. As the war progressed, syringes became more readily available to surgeons in field hospitals, allowing for the injection of morphine in liquid form. Unfortunately, the widespread use of these drugs led to addiction among some soldiers, and hospitals and doctors were forced to guard their medicine supplies to prevent theft. Addiction was so prevalent among veterans after the war that it became known as "Soldier’s Disease." The availability of Drugs in the Old West contributed to a national health crisis.
Morphine was used to treat the same symptoms as opium, and it was also prescribed for hangovers and even in the treatment of alcoholism when doctors believed that morphine addiction was the lesser of two evils. It was also used during childbirth.
Another important opium derivative was laudanum, a drinkable medicine made by dissolving opium in alcohol. It was used as a sedative and painkiller to treat headaches, toothaches, heart ailments, insomnia, nerve pain, and "female complaints." It was also added to cough syrup. Tragically, laudanum was also used to commit suicide, particularly among disillusioned prostitutes in the Old West. Some notable examples include Sallie Talbot in Cheyenne, Wyoming, in 1873, Laura Steele in Virginia City, Nevada, in 1875, and Ida Vernon, also of Virginia City, Nevada.
A more well-known figure who succumbed to an overdose was Eleanor Dumont, better known as Madame Moustache, a gambler who worked the mining camps in Nevada, Montana, Arizona, and California. She died of an overdose after suffering a significant gambling loss in Bodie, California, in 1879. Mattie Blalock, the common-law wife or girlfriend of Wyatt Earp, was also known to have abused laudanum while she was with Earp. Several years after he left her, she took a lethal dose of laudanum and alcohol in 1888. It is unclear whether her death was a suicide or an accident.
Many writers and poets of the time were also known to use laudanum, including Charles Dickens, Lewis Carroll, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and Edgar Allan Poe.
The first widespread recreational use of opium in the United States occurred in the 19th century, with the influx of Chinese laborers working in and around the mines during the California Gold Rush and building the Transcontinental Railroad. These immigrants brought their opium-smoking habits with them, and opium dens soon opened in settlements with a significant Chinese population. From about 1850 to 1870, opium smoking remained primarily a Chinese habit. However, during the 1870s, it began to spread, especially among those in the underworld, such as pimps, gamblers, prostitutes, and criminals. Opium dens were typically located in the Chinese sections of town, often called "Hop Alley." In the 1880s, Denver’s Hop Alley had 12 opium dens, with five more nearby. The spread of Drugs in the Old West was fueled by cultural exchange and the allure of escapism.
News of the effects of smoking opium quickly spread to the general population, and opium dens proliferated across the continent, reaching as far as New York City. The importation of opium increased steadily from 24,000 pounds in 1840 to 416,924 pounds in 1872.
Opium imports reached their peak in the 1890s, coinciding with the rise of the temperance movement. This may have been due to the demonization of alcohol or because opiate use was easier to conceal. In 1900, it was estimated that there were 250,000 opium addicts in the United States.
However, most Americans did not need to visit an opium den to experience the effects of opiates. They were often the main ingredient in many patent medicines. From teething powders to cough syrups to remedies for "female complaints," these elixirs were prevalent on the market.
In 1898, the Bayer pharmaceutical company discovered that boiling morphine created another "effective" medicine: heroin. The name was derived from the German word heroisch, meaning "heroic" or "strong." The company quickly launched an aggressive marketing campaign to sell its commercial preparation of heroin and another recent invention: aspirin. Heroin was touted as a treatment for asthma, coughs, colds, bronchitis, and tuberculosis, even for children. It was also promoted as non-addictive and as a substitute for alcohol and morphine. These promotions continued through 1912.
Cocaine: From Coca Leaves to a Medical Marvel
Cocaine, one of the oldest, most potent, and most dangerous stimulants of natural origin, has been used since 3000 BC. The ancient Incas chewed coca leaves to increase their heart rate and breathing to counteract the effects of living in the thin mountain air. The Peruvians chewed coca leaves during religious ceremonies and used them as a local anesthetic to dull pain in open wounds.
Cocaine was first extracted from coca leaves in 1859 by German chemist Albert Niemann. In 1863, a French chemist named Angelo Mariani made a fortune selling a new beverage called Vin Mariani, which was made from coca leaves. Marketed as fortifying and refreshing the body and restoring health and vitality, it was considered a wonder medicine for various ailments. Two glasses of the drink were believed to contain about 50 milligrams of pure cocaine.
However, it was not until the 1880s that cocaine began to gain popularity in the medical community. In 1883, Dr. Theodor Aschenbrandt, a German army physician, provided a supply of pure cocaine to Bavarian soldiers during maneuvers. He later reported positive results, including beneficial effects on the soldiers’ ability to endure fatigue during battle-like conditions. This attracted the attention of the medical community and others. One such individual was Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, who used the drug himself and was the first to widely promote cocaine as a tonic to cure depression and sexual impotence.
Before long, cocaine was found in several patent medicines, and cocaine lozenges were recommended as effective remedies for coughs, colds, and toothaches. Doctors and pharmacists often prescribed it to treat indigestion, melancholia, pain, and even to relieve vomiting during pregnancy. Cocaine was widely available and could be purchased over the counter. It was used in cough medicines, enemas, and poultices. By 1885, cocaine was sold in various forms, including cigarettes, powder, and even injectable solutions. In medicine, it was commonly used as a local anesthetic. The presence of Drugs in the Old West extended to stimulants like cocaine, often marketed as health aids.
In 1885, John Styth Pemberton of Atlanta, Georgia, who had previously manufactured patent medicines such as Triplex Liver Pills and Globe of Flower Cough Syrup, introduced "French Wine Coca," advertised as an "Ideal Nerve and Tonic Stimulant." The product relied heavily on the extract of coca leaves. The following year, Pemberton introduced a syrup called "Coca-Cola," named for the presence of an extract of the kola nut. At various times, it was advertised as "a remarkable therapeutic agent" and as a "sovereign remedy" for a long list of ailments, including melancholy and insomnia. Coca-Cola once contained an estimated nine milligrams of cocaine per glass. (For comparison, a typical dose or "line" of cocaine is 50–75 mg.) In 1903, the cocaine was removed from the formula.
Cannabis: From Hemp Fields to Hashish Parlors
The oldest known written record of cannabis (marijuana) use dates back to China in 2727 B.C. There, it was considered a legitimate medication. Ancient Greeks and Romans were also familiar with cannabis, while in the Middle East, its use spread throughout the Islamic empire to North Africa. In 1545, cannabis spread to the Western Hemisphere, where Spaniards imported it to Chile for its use as fiber. In North America, cannabis, in the form of hemp, was also introduced by the Spanish and later grown on many plantations for use in rope, clothing, and paper.
During colonial days, the plant became a staple crop for farmers, who reportedly grew it for its fiber. Along with tobacco, hemp became a major export crop before the American Revolution.
The settlers of Jamestown, Virginia, brought the plant to the states in 1611, cultivating it for its fiber. It was introduced into New England in 1629, and from that time until after the Civil War, cannabis was a major crop in North America, playing an important role in both colonial and national economic policy. In fact, even George Washington grew hemp in 1765 at Mount Vernon.
In 1775, hemp culture was introduced into Kentucky, and large hemp plantations flourished in Mississippi, Georgia, California, South Carolina, and Nebraska until well into the 1800s.
In 1830, an Irish doctor and herb specialist was credited with training his Western colleagues in relieving muscle spasms and pain with cannabis. It was also used to treat migraines and insomnia and as a primary pain reliever until the invention of aspirin.
From 1850 until 1942, the United States Pharmacopoeia, which lists the most widely accepted drugs, recognized marijuana as a legitimate medicine under the name "Extractum Cannabis." In 1851, the United States Dispensary said of it: "The complaints in which it has been specially recommended are neuralgia, gout, rheumatism, tetanus, hydrophobia, epidemic cholera, convulsions, chorea, hemorrhage."
An autobiographical book by Fitz Hugh Ludlow called The Hashish Eater was published in 1857. The volume described the author’s altered states of consciousness and philosophical flights of fancy while using a cannabis extract. In the United States, the book created popular interest in hashish, leading to hashish candy and private hashish clubs. Within 25 years of the publication of The Hashish Eater, many cities in the United States had private hashish parlors.
Limited non-medical use of cannabis was reported in an 1869 issue of the Scientific American: "The drug hashish, the cannabis indica of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, the resinous product of hemp, grown in the East Indies and other parts of Asia, is used in those countries to a large extent for its intoxicating properties and is doubtless used in this country for the same purpose to a limited extent."
The use of cannabis products for recreation grew gradually. The December 2, 1876, issue of the Illustrated Police News featured a drawing of five exotically attired young ladies supposedly indulging in their "hashish" habit in a room where hookahs were conspicuous. The News captioned the drawing: "Secret Dissipation of New York Belles: Interior of a Hashish Hell on Fifth Avenue."
This was the status quo until 1906, when the federal government stepped in with its landmark Pure Food and Drug Act, which required any "dangerous" or "addictive" drugs to appear on the label of products. More regulations followed in an attempt to stop drug use and addiction. However, as we see today, little has changed. The story of Drugs in the Old West illustrates the cyclical nature of drug use, regulation, and societal perception.