Fort Robinson, Nebraska and the Red Cloud Agency
Nestled along the banks of the White River in the northwestern expanse of Nebraska, lies a landscape steeped in history and resonating with the echoes of a tumultuous era. Here, Fort Robinson, Nebraska, and the Red Cloud Agency once stood as pivotal installations, bearing witness to the dramatic final chapters of the Sioux and Cheyenne resistance on the Northern Plains. These sites, now imbued with the weight of history, offer a compelling glimpse into the complex interactions between the U.S. government, the U.S. Army, and the Native American tribes who called this land home.
The story of Fort Robinson, Nebraska, and the Red Cloud Agency begins in 1874 with the establishment of the fort. Its primary purpose was to provide protection for the Red Cloud Agency, which had been relocated a year prior. The agency’s initial location, from 1871 to 1873, was strategically positioned along the Oregon-California Trail and the North Platte River, approximately 25 miles southeast of Fort Laramie in Wyoming. This original site was chosen for its accessibility and proximity to vital transportation routes.
The Red Cloud Agency itself was conceived with a specific and, arguably, controlling mission: to manage and distribute essential resources, including food and annuities, to the Sioux and Cheyenne tribes. Among those under the agency’s purview was the influential Oglala Chief Red Cloud. Red Cloud, a figure of unwavering resolve, resisted the government’s attempts to confine his people to the Great Sioux Reservation in western South Dakota, a territory delineated by the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868. He adamantly insisted on maintaining his residence in the unceded territory north of the North Platte River, a region that held deep cultural and historical significance for his people.
Life at the Red Cloud Agency was anything but tranquil. The agency served as a magnet, drawing in vast numbers of Native Americans. At times, the population swelled to an estimated 13,000 individuals, many of whom were wary of the government’s intentions. These individuals, along with their non-reservation kin and members of the Arapaho tribe, who traditionally inhabited the surrounding unceded hunting territories, would converge near the agency during the harsh winter months, seeking access to vital food supplies.
The agency’s administration was often characterized by inexperience and, regrettably, corruption. This resulted in a chaotic environment where the Native American population, in essence, held sway over the agents and their staff. In February 1874, tensions boiled over, leading to a violent rampage in which the acting agent was killed. In response to this escalating unrest, the U.S. Army established Fort Robinson, Nebraska, and the Red Cloud Agency was never the same. The fort was strategically positioned adjacent to the agency. Additionally, Camp Sheridan was established near the newly formed Spotted Tail Agency, situated 40 miles to the northeast, primarily serving the Upper Brule Sioux. Recognizing that the constant presence of troops near the agency could exacerbate tensions, the fort’s commander made the decision to relocate the installation approximately 1.5 miles west of the agency in May.
Despite the Army’s efforts, the endemic corruption within the agency’s management persisted, fueling the Native Americans’ discontent. In 1875, a special government commission convened hearings at various locations, including the Red Cloud and Spotted Tail Agencies, to investigate reports of malfeasance. The commission substantiated allegations that agents, government employees, contractors, and freighters were profiting from the distribution of Indian food and annuities, often providing substandard goods. This widespread corruption ignited public outrage, particularly among humanitarian groups in the eastern United States.
However, the violation of the Fort Laramie Treaty through the mining invasion of the Black Hills of South Dakota in 1874-75 proved to be an even more profound catalyst for Native American hostility. Fort Robinson, Nebraska, and the Red Cloud Agency inadvertently became a key waypoint on the route to the goldfields. In September 1875, government representatives convened meetings, first at the fort and later at a site eight miles to the east, in an attempt to purchase the Black Hills from the reservation Sioux. However, the Sioux representatives vehemently refused to cede their ancestral lands.
The following year, the fort served as a staging ground for military campaigns in Wyoming and Montana, targeting the non-reservation and reservation Sioux and Cheyenne tribes, who had united under the leadership of Chief Sitting Bull and other prominent figures. In June, these united forces achieved a resounding victory over Lieutenant Colonel George Custer and his troops at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, a pivotal moment in the history of the Indian Wars.
In the aftermath of the Little Bighorn and a subsequent victory over the Sioux in September at the Battle of Slim Buttes in South Dakota, Brigadier General George Crook returned to Fort Laramie, Wyoming, via the Black Hills. From there, he marched to the Red Cloud and Spotted Tail Agencies, quelling a threatened uprising by disarming and dismounting Red Cloud’s Oglala and Red Leaf’s Brule warriors. Crook and other generals launched retaliatory winter campaigns that ultimately led to the surrender of many Native Americans.
Approximately 4,500 Sioux and Cheyenne individuals, including prominent leaders such as Chief Dull Knife and Crazy Horse, surrendered at Fort Robinson and Camp Sheridan during the winter and spring. In September 1877, a tragic misunderstanding led to an attempt to arrest Crazy Horse at Fort Robinson. During the struggle in the guardhouse, Crazy Horse drew a knife, prompting a soldier to bayonet him. He succumbed to his injuries shortly thereafter in the adjutant’s office. This incident, though tragic, averted a potential Indian rebellion.
The following month, in accordance with the terms of the Black Hills Treaty of 1876, the Red Cloud and Spotted Tail Agencies, along with their residents, were relocated to the Pine Ridge and Rosebud Reservations in South Dakota.
In September 1878, Cheyenne Chief Dull Knife and his band, who had been reassigned from Fort Robinson to the Darlington Agency in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), made a daring escape, embarking on a journey back to their homeland. They were eventually captured in the sandhills near Fort Robinson and confined. In January 1879, they once again attempted to break free, resulting in a tragic event known as the Fort Robinson Massacre, in which many were killed, and the remaining were captured.
During the Ghost Dance rebellion in 1890, elements of the black 9th Cavalry and the white 8th Infantry from Fort Robinson, Nebraska, and the Red Cloud Agency were among the first troops deployed to the Pine Ridge Agency in South Dakota.
The late 1870s witnessed an influx of ranchers into the area surrounding Fort Robinson, followed by homesteaders after the arrival of the railroad in 1886. The fort’s presence helped to mitigate conflicts between these two groups. In 1890, Fort Robinson’s importance grew due to the inactivation of Fort Laramie. The fort remained active through World War II, serving as a cavalry base, remount depot, war-dog training center, and prisoner-of-war camp during its final years. Since 1949, two years after the Army’s departure, the site has been home to the Fort Robinson Beef Cattle Research Station, a collaborative effort between the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the University of Nebraska.
Today, Fort Robinson State Park encompasses the principal historic buildings, including six sets of frame-covered adobe officers’ quarters, constructed in 1874-75, and six sets of brick officers’ quarters, built in 1887. Several other structures, such as storehouses, shops, and offices, date from 1886-1910, while the remaining buildings are later additions. The Nebraska State Historical Society has installed interpretive markers throughout the fort area and operates a museum in the headquarters building. The society has also reconstructed the guardhouse where Crazy Horse was mortally wounded, as well as the adjutant’s office, both originally built in 1874.
Although no physical remains exist at the Red Cloud Agency site, located east of the fort, a monument commemorates its significance, and the state has conducted archaeological investigations. The historical ambiance remains largely unspoiled by modern intrusions. During the summer months, the Nebraska State Historical Society offers guided tours to the site from the Fort Robinson Museum. Both the fort and agency sites are situated on lands owned by the U.S. Government and the State of Nebraska. The state park also provides recreational amenities, including lodging, camping, fishing, and hiking trails, offering visitors a chance to connect with nature and history.
Located in Dawes and Sioux Counties, Fort Robinson is accessible via U.S. 20, approximately four miles west of Crawford. The site of the Red Cloud Agency can be reached via an unimproved road about 1.5 miles east of the fort.