Frontier Wars
By Emerson Hough, 1907
The annals of the American frontier are etched with tales of conflict, often escalating beyond mere lawlessness into full-fledged battles. These Frontier Wars weren’t simple crimes; they were large-scale breaches of order, too vast and complex for the existing legal systems to effectively address. These conflicts were multifaceted, sometimes fueled by political ideologies, as seen in the tumultuous anti-slavery warfare that engulfed Kansas. At other times, they erupted over the mundane yet fiercely contested establishment of townsites, pitting armed factions against each other in a scramble for dominance, with scant regard for the constraints of the law. Even disputes over livestock, such as the clashes between cattlemen and rustlers, or those perceived as "little fellows," could explode into large-scale armed confrontations. Paradoxically, the most brutal of these Frontier Wars often remain shrouded in obscurity, while the more theatrical and less consequential ones gained widespread notoriety.
It is challenging to reconcile the present-day tranquility of Kansas with its turbulent past, a history where conflict seems to lurk beneath every layer. No other territory of comparable size has witnessed such extensive warfare across such diverse causes. From skirmishes with Native American tribes to confrontations involving gamblers, outlaws, townsite rivalries, and deeply divisive political disputes, Kansas’s history is unparalleled in the American West. This history is marked by both intense passion and, at times, by the less noble influences of fanaticism and self-interest.
The border conflicts between Kansas and Missouri in the years immediately preceding the Civil War represent a particularly compelling chapter. These Frontier Wars could have been immortalized in ballads and stories had they not been overshadowed by the far greater conflict between the North and the South. The issue of the Missouri Compromise’s repeal deeply divided the nation, even within the North itself. The states of Alabama, Arkansas, California, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Missouri, New Hampshire, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia cast either a unanimous or majority vote in favor of repealing the Compromise. Conversely, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Wisconsin opposed the repeal. Illinois and New Jersey were evenly split. Ohio’s vote was particularly fractured, with four votes for repeal and seventeen against.
This pivotal vote paved the way for Kansas and Nebraska to enter the Union, granting them the freedom to decide on the issue of slavery. The stated intention was "not to legislate slavery into any territory, nor to exclude it therefrom, but to leave the people thereof perfectly free to form and regulate their own domestic institutions in their own way."
However, the question of who constituted "the people" of these contested territories became a major point of contention. Abolitionists from the North, driven by a sense of moral imperative, flocked to Kansas, ready to take up arms in their cause. Simultaneously, many Missourians felt obligated to cross the border and participate in the vote on "domestic institutions" in Kansas, resorting to violence, arson, and destruction to achieve their aims. These pro-slavery factions were met by anti-slavery forces along the expansive frontier. Years of escalating violence ensued, marked by a series of increasingly reprehensible acts, both large and small, including murders and arsons. This period of intense conflict ultimately drew the entire nation into the turmoil of "Bleeding Kansas," a stark illustration of the deep divisions over slavery.
The animosities generated during this period were deep-seated and enduring, and the prominent figures on both sides became targets for future violence. The issues of the Civil War and slavery continued to resonate throughout the West for decades afterward. While some figures emerged from this strife with reputations for courage and daring, the overall narrative is marred by unpleasant details that offer little glory to either side. It remains, however, a vital and well-documented chapter of American history.
The arrival of the railroads on the Western plains ushered in the era of the land boomer, a figure who had been present on the American Frontier Wars since the Revolutionary War. This individual had been in Kentucky early enough to defraud Daniel Boone of his land claims. He established Marietta on the Ohio River through land theft and continued to found towns across the westward expansion.
Early settlers traveling down the Ohio Valley in the early decades of the 19th century encountered the ruins of abandoned towns, remnants of the townsite shark’s passage. This individual’s record was consistent across the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. He often acted as a pioneer of avarice, instigating conflict under the guise of establishing law and order. Each town proclaimed itself the center of the universe, leading to absurd rivalries, such as the contention over which Kansas town was precisely at the center of the United States. This intense local pride often compelled citizens to unite, even violently, to defend the supposed merits of their "city."
This peculiar aspect of frontier life was particularly evident in disputes over county seats. Almost every frontier county seat establishment was marked by conflict, often violent. The author recounts personal experiences witnessing these clashes between rival towns, noting that the intensity of the antagonism would be comical if it weren’t so deadly. The spectacle of two fledgling "cities," each consisting of a few shacks and blueprint maps, neither offering any tangible advantage, engaging in fierce battles highlights the irrationality of the situation. Yet, these citizens fought with a tenacity comparable to those who fought over slavery in Kansas. The Stevens County War serves as a prime example, one of the most brutal and recent feuds involving local politicians.
The wars between cattlemen on the range, perhaps due to the passage of time, seem to possess a more romantic and less sordid quality, if such terms can be applied. When cattlemen began fencing off the open range, restricting access to what had been considered God’s open land, they infringed upon more than just local or political pride. They challenged the fundamental principle of personal freedom, stifling the spirit of the West, a land that had always symbolized liberty. Those who experienced the profound sense of freedom, independence, and rebellion against restraint that came with riding or driving for days across the plains without encountering a fence or needing a road understood the significance of this encroachment. To encounter one of these new, extensive fences erected by wealthy landowners was an act of defiance, prompting the cutting of the fence and continuing onward. The free men of the West refused to be confined. They believed the range belonged to them, a sentiment they cherished deeply. Whether this perspective is viewed favorably or critically is a matter of individual judgment.
However, the fence represented the assertion of property rights, and the property-owning class ultimately prevailed over the nomadic and restless elements, establishing boundaries and regulations. The battles between nesters and rustlers for control of the free range were more intense than commonly recognized.
One of the most widely publicized of these conflicts was the Johnson County War in Wyoming, which occurred in the summer of 1892. However, among seasoned Westerners, it was often dismissed as the "dude war." Only two men were killed in this conflict, and the non-resident cattlemen who attempted to impose vigilante justice on rustlers proved ill-suited for the task. They were relieved to be arrested and taken into protective custody by the military. Instead of eliminating rustlers, they stirred up an entire valley, becoming besieged and nearly annihilated. They, or their hired Texas cowboys, killed a couple of "little fellows," but that was their only achievement. The ensuing legal chaos nearly bankrupted Wyoming, ultimately yielding no tangible results. This group of cattlemen included a member of the legislature, a member of the stock commission, several wealthy cattlemen, two Harvard graduates, and a young Englishman seeking adventure. As a whole, they formed one of the most incompetent and ineffective vigilante groups ever assembled. Nevertheless, their actions were widely reported, and for a brief period, they may have felt they were making a significant impact. They were motivated by substantial property losses caused by rustlers, who effectively controlled that part of Wyoming, while local courts failed to convict them. This debacle did little to accelerate the shift toward a settled society, which eventually arrived with the railroads and farmers, tipping the balance of power in favor of the home dweller over the nomad.
Wars between sheepmen and cattlemen sometimes escalated into armed confrontations. Sheep were consistently unwelcome on the range, a sentiment that persists even today, although the courts now handle such disputes more effectively. Cow barons and their men often retaliated against the "woolly nuisances" by killing them in large numbers. The author recalls an instance where five thousand sheep were slaughtered in a box canyon by enraged cattlemen whose range had been invaded. Sheep graze so closely that they can kill the grass, and cattle refuse to graze on land that sheep have traversed. Numerous conflicts of this nature have occurred from Montana to Mexico.
Additionally, factional disputes could arise over trivial matters, particularly in communities or regions where relatively equal groups of men were divided by self-interest. In an era when life remained untamed and the law was weak, these disagreements could escalate into bitter and bloody conflicts between factions.
Compiled and edited by Kathy Alexander/Legends of America, updated April 2024.
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About the Author: Excerpted from The Story of the Outlaw; A Study of the Western Desperado, by Emerson Hough; Outing Publishing Company, New York, 1907. This story is not verbatim, as it has been edited for clerical errors and updated for the modern reader. Emerson Hough (1857–1923) was an author and journalist who wrote factional accounts and historical novels of life in the American West. His works helped establish the Western as a popular genre in literature and motion pictures. For years, Hough wrote the feature “Out-of-Doors” for the Saturday Evening Post and contributed to other major magazines.
