Hernando De Soto – Exploring the Southeast

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Hernando De Soto – Exploring the Southeast

Hernando De Soto – Exploring the Southeast

Hernando de Soto, a name synonymous with ambition, conquest, and ultimately, tragedy, embarked on an epic exploration of the southeastern reaches of what would become the United States. His journey, fueled by the promise of riches and driven by an unyielding will, left an indelible mark on the landscape and its indigenous inhabitants. This article delves into the details of his expedition, drawing from historical accounts to paint a vivid picture of his triumphs and failures.

The year was 1538, and Hernando de Soto stood at the pinnacle of his career. At approximately 36 years of age, he was appointed adelantado of Florida, a vast and largely unknown territory to the Spanish crown. A "gentleman by all four descents," he was a knight of the Order of Santiago, a prestigious honor bestowed upon him by the Emperor himself. De Soto’s past was already etched with adventure. He had served under Pedrarias in Nicaragua and solidified his position through marriage to Pedrarias’ daughter, Dona Isabel, becoming the brother-in-law of Vasco Nunez de Balboa, the famed discoverer of the Pacific Ocean. Later, he would distinguish himself under Francisco Pizarro in Peru, proving instrumental in the seizure of Atahualpa, the Inca lord, and the capture of Cuzco. As the Gentleman of Elvas, a comrade of De Soto, eloquently stated, wherever "resistance" was found, Hernando de Soto was there to meet it head-on. Opposition, whether from foe or friend, was not tolerated, and the defeat of his will was an unbearable prospect.

De Soto’s character was plain for all to see. His swarthy, strongly lined face and burning black eyes spoke of a man of action and determination. Though of medium stature, his proud carriage commanded attention and respect. Known for his courage and renowned skill as a horseman, De Soto was a figure that demanded notice. His financial standing allowed him to maintain a fine establishment and even lend money to Emperor Charles V, from whom he sought high office. The Emperor granted his request, appointing him Governor of Cuba and adelantado of Florida. Inspired by the tales of wealth found in Mexico, echoing Panfilo de Narvaez’s visions, De Soto hoped to discover another Peru in Florida. The allure of gold and glory beckoned.

The news of Hernando De Soto’s upcoming expedition ignited a frenzy among his countrymen. Cabeza de Vaca’s recent arrival at court, recounting his incredible journey, further fueled the enthusiasm. Rich nobles, captivated by the prospect of untold riches, sold their estates, houses, vineyards, olive fields, and even their towns of vassals to participate in the venture. Seville became a hub of activity, overflowing with individuals of noble birth eager to join the expedition. So many desired to participate that a significant number of those who had liquidated their assets were forced to remain behind due to a lack of available shipping. De Soto meticulously reviewed his assembled volunteers at the port of Sanlucar, carefully selecting the most capable men. In total, he enlisted 600 individuals. These men, along with their supplies, were tightly packed into nine vessels for the journey from Spain.

On a Sunday morning, the day of St. Lazarus in April 1538, Hernando De Soto, aboard a "new ship fast of sail," led his fleet out of Sanlucar amidst great fanfare. Artillery roared from each vessel, and trumpets blared at his command. Favorable winds propelled his ships forward. His beloved Dona Isabel was by his side, and the promise of adventure and fame lay before him. On Pentecost Day, the ships arrived in the harbor of Santiago de Cuba. Horsemen and footmen from the town flocked to the landing, and Don Hernando and Dona Isabel, followed by their entourage of 600, rode into the city, where they were warmly welcomed and served by the citizens. From Santiago, Don Hernando sent Dona Isabel and the ships to Havana, his port of embarkation for Florida, while he toured the cities under his authority with 150 horsemen. He soon learned that his ships bound for Havana had encountered severe storms, scattering them. However, after 40 days, all the ships had safely arrived in Havana. Leaving his cavalcade to follow, Don Hernando quickly rode to Havana to reunite with Dona Isabel.

On Sunday, May 18, 1539, Hernando De Soto bid farewell to his wife and set sail from Havana for Florida, a land still rumored to be "the richest of any which until then had been discovered." On May 30th, he landed his men near an Indian town on Tampa Bay. The Spaniards immediately clashed with the natives, who attacked the armored horsemen with arrows. Two Indians were killed, and the others fled into the wooded and boggy terrain where the horses could not pursue.

That night, the Spaniards could see flames flickering in the distance as the Indians signaled their warning inland. Two days later, they discovered a deserted town of eight huts. De Soto established his headquarters there and dispatched companies of horse and foot to explore the surrounding area. He ordered the woods cleared "the distance of a crossbow shot" around the town, posted sentinels, and assigned horsemen to patrol the perimeter. He then took residence in the chief’s house.

In the dust-covered floor beneath the torchlight, De Soto found a small scattering of pearls. Though damaged by fire, he saw them as a symbol of the fortune that would connect him to greatness for the rest of his life and beyond. Exploring parties reported that the Indians of Florida were formidable foes. One party returned with six wounded men, one fatally. However, they had captured four women. Another party brought in a white man, Juan Ortiz, a noble who had followed Panfilo de Narvaez and had been a slave among the Indians for the past eleven years.

Ortiz had initially arrived in Florida with Narvaez but had returned to Cuba on the ships. Later, Narvaez’s wife sent him back to Florida to search for her husband, where he was taken captive. According to his account, an Indian girl, a prototype of Pocahontas, had saved his life when he was about to be roasted alive at her father’s command. Over time, Ortiz had learned several dialects and could now serve as an interpreter. To De Soto’s inquiries, Ortiz said he had seen no gold or jewels but had heard of a rich country thirty leagues inland. This was enough to spur De Soto to dispatch his ships to Cuba for more supplies and order his company to prepare for a march. This marked the beginning of three years of relentless wandering, during which Hernando De Soto and his men traversed vast territories including Florida, Georgia, Carolina, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and Texas.

On August 1, 1539, leaving a garrison of 50 footmen with 30 horses and two years’ worth of food at the camp, De Soto departed with around 550 lancers, crossbowmen, and arquebusiers; approximately 200 horses; priests and Dominican friars carrying sacred vessels, vestments, and white meal for Mass; a physician with his medicines; a ship’s carpenter, caulkers, and a cooper for boat-building; and armorers and smiths with their forges and tools to repair mail shirts, swords, and chains.

Their destination was the northwest, to the country of Cale. Indians had told them that beyond Cale, "towards the sunset," lay a land of perpetual summer, rich in gold. Over the low, thicketed country, full of bogs and swamps, they traveled, horses struggling under their armor and the weight of their riders. They crossed small rivers on logs, swimming the horses over with hawsers. Food was scarce, and the Spaniards ate young palm shoots and watercresses. Invisible Indians sent arrows raining down on them from the thickets.

"He came to Cale and found the town abandoned," the Gentleman of Elvas wrote succinctly. Cale, a muddy collection of palmetto huts on the Suwanee River, provided enough maize to feed De Soto’s men for three months. The Indians remained hidden, and no slaves could be taken, forcing the Spaniards to grind their own corn. Some used log mortars and sifted the flour through their mail shirts. Most, however, ate the grains "parched and sodden."

No golden hats were found in Cale, so De Soto continued northwestward to Caliquen. He ordered his horsemen and greyhounds to capture Indians, needing guides and slaves. Like Hernando Cortes, he seized the chief of each town, holding him hostage to ensure the tribe’s peaceful conduct and to supply food and women for the army.

Hernando De Soto’s first major battle with the Indians occurred when the natives of Caliquen attempted to rescue their chief. Ortiz, understanding their language, informed De Soto of the plot. Four hundred natives stationed themselves outside the camp and demanded their chief’s release. De Soto led the chief out, accompanied by a dozen soldiers, then ordered the trumpet sounded. Shouting "Santiago," the Spaniards attacked, routing the Indians and killing dozens. The survivors fled into nearby lakes. The Spaniards surrounded one lake, and during the night, they saw water lilies moving slowly inshore. The Indians had placed lilies on their heads and were swimming silently towards land. The Spaniards drove them back. The next day, nearly all were captured and enslaved. The forges worked tirelessly riveting chains and collars. However, the natives of Caliquen remained defiant, seizing weapons and fighting fiercely.

A further march brought the Spaniards to a town of the Appalachee near Tallahassee, Florida. They found fields of grain, beans, and pumpkins ready for harvest and decided to camp for the winter. De Soto sent communications to his ships at Tampa and letters, with twenty Indian women captives as gifts, to Dona Isabel in Cuba. The army remained in camp until March. In addition to sending men to Tampa Bay to retrieve the garrison left there, De Soto sent out two exploring parties. One discovered Pensacola Bay, and the other found the Bay of Horses, where Narvaez and his men had perished. His men urged him to leave Florida, fearing they would suffer the same fate as Narvaez, but De Soto refused. He was determined to find the golden country he sought or perish trying, rather than face the shame of being outdone by another conquistador.

On March 3, 1540, Hernando De Soto broke camp and marched northeastward through Georgia, into the territory of the Creek Indians. Towards the end of April, he arrived at Cufitachiqui on the Savannah River. The cacica, draped in furs and feathers with loops of pearls, greeted De Soto, offering him and his men canoes to cross the river and gifts. She removed a large string of pearls and placed it around De Soto’s neck. She told him that he would find many more pearls in the burial mounds.

De Soto took 350 pounds of pearls from the graves at Cufitachiqui. He also found a dirk and rosaries that had belonged to Lucas Vazquez de Ayllon’s followers. While his men wanted to establish a settlement at Cufitachiqui, De Soto refused, still seeking a greater treasure. He asked the cacica about a "great lord farther on" and was told of the rich province of Chiaha, subject to the chief of Coosa. Determined to seek this new goal, he took the cacica under guard, carrying her away on foot with her female slaves.

After seven days of marching, the Spaniards reached the country of the Cherokee. Five days later, they arrived at Xualla, a Cherokee town. The cacique of Cufitachiqui escaped, carrying a cane box full of unbored pearls. De Soto crossed the Smoky Mountains into Tennessee. At Guaxule, he obtained three hundred "dogs" for meat. The hilly country was unproductive, so De Soto turned south into Georgia to see the "greatest prince" of Coosa. The natives provided mulberries, nuts, maize, and wild turkeys.

De Soto followed the Coosa River to Chiaha, a town of the Creek Indians. He reached Coosa on July 26, 1540. The chief of Coosa, arrayed in a marten skin shawl, invited De Soto to settle in his country. However, De Soto saw no gold in Coosa and seized several slaves and the chief himself. He continued southward through Alabama. Near the Alabama River, he was shown the dagger of Theodoro, a Greek who had come ashore to get fresh water for Panfilo de Narvaez’s men.

On October 15th, after crossing the Alabama River, De Soto reached Maravilla, near Choctaw Bluff. The name Maravilla survives in the name Mobile. The Indians attacked the Spaniards, driving them outside the town walls. They seized baggage, provisions, arms, and the pearls. De Soto ordered the town fired, and as the natives fled, he broke through with his soldiers. Eighteen Spaniards and twelve horses were killed, and 150 Spaniards and 70 horses were wounded. The Indians were slaughtered, driven back into the burning town. All the baggage, supplies, pearls, and vessels for Mass were consumed in the fire.

De Soto, wounded, heard that ships from Cuba, commanded by his lieutenant, Maldonado, waited at anchor at the coast, bearing supplies and letters from Dona Isabel. However, he kept this information from his men, fearing they would want to leave Florida. He decided to send no news of himself until he had discovered a rich country. The ships waited and then sailed home without any news.

De Soto’s force was reduced by 102 men, who had been killed or lost. The survivors were in rags, and many of his horses and supplies were destroyed. On November 17, 1540, De Soto moved northwestward in search of a Promised Land called Pacaha. He crossed the Black Warrior and the Tombigbee Rivers and entered a Chickasaw town in Mississippi, where he spent the winter. He faced troubles with the Chickasaw. Some natives caught stealing were executed, and others were punished. Four Spaniards who pillaged Indian houses were almost executed as well.

In March, when Hernando De Soto demanded carriers and women, the Chickasaw attacked at dawn, setting fire to the town. The Spaniards were caught off guard, and eleven Spaniards and fifty horses perished. The army moved to another town and made saddles and lances from ash and grass mats for protection. Towards the end of April, De Soto started northwestward, and in May 1541, he stood on the east bank of the Mississippi River.

De Soto ordered his men to build vessels to cross the river to Pacaha. The cacique of Aquixo visited him with chiefs and 200 warriors in canoes adorned with plumes and shields. They bore gifts of furs, buffalo robes, dried fruits, and fish. However, when De Soto approached, the cacique ordered his men to retreat. De Soto ordered his crossbowmen to fire, killing several Indians.

Over the next month, the Spaniards built barges. Early one June morning, they crossed the Mississippi River, and by sunrise, all the men and horses were on the west bank. Marching north through Arkansas, De Soto learned more about Chisca, beyond Pacaha, where there was said to be gold. He found deserted towns, the inhabitants hiding in the ravines and forests.

Hernando de Soto made friends with the chief of Casqui, who was at odds with the chief of Pacaha, and set up a cross in his town. After "pacifying" Pacaha, De Soto reconciled the chiefs and entertained them at dinner. The chief of Casqui gave De Soto his daughter to wife, and the chief of Pacaha gave him two of his sisters. However, no gold was found at Pacaha.

After a rest, De Soto moved westward across northern Arkansas to Tanico, where he halted for a month to gather supplies and fatten his horses. From Tanico, he turned southeastward, crossed the Arkansas River, and went into winter quarters at Autiamque. The Spaniards spent three months there, during which snow fell continuously. Juan Ortiz, the interpreter, died at Autiamque.

In March 1542, De Soto continued down the Arkansas River. He had only about 300 effective men and 40 horses left. De Soto resolved to reach the seacoast, build two vessels, and send one to New Spain and the other to Cuba, hoping to refit and continue his exploration. In April, he reached Guachoya, at the mouth of the Arkansas River.

To find out how near the sea was, he sent men down the Mississippi River, but they returned to report that only the river’s tide, bayous, and swamps stretched for miles below. No news of the sea, and men and horses dying, De Soto’s spirit broke, and he fell ill with a fever. He sent a messenger to the chief of Quigaltam, demanding carriers and provisions, claiming to be the "Child of the Sun." The chief refused.

De Soto, near death, grieved that he could not cross the river and subdue the chief’s pride. He sent an expedition to lay waste to the town of Nilco as a lesson to the Indians.

Hernando de Soto lay dying in loneliness. On the day before his death, he called his officers and men, thanked them, and asked their forgiveness. He requested them to elect his successor. De Soto chose Luis de Moscoso Alvarado, and the others swore to obey him. On May 21, 1542, Hernando de Soto died.

The death of the "Child of the Sun" was kept secret from the Indians. His body was buried at night within the town walls, but the Indians noticed the disturbed earth. De Soto’s body was dug up and packed with sand, wrapped in shawls, and sunk into the Mississippi River.

The wanderings of his followers continued. Moscoso decided to try to reach Mexico by land. On June 5th, the Spaniards moved westward, reaching the Red River but were prevented from crossing by a flood. They changed course to the south and entered the Caddo villages of eastern Texas. In October, they turned back to one of the villages on the Mississippi River.

They resolved to descend the Great River and built a fleet of brigantines. Timber was felled, a forge was set up, and a Genoese shipbuilder constructed the vessels. Sails were made of woven hemp and skins, ropes from mulberry bark, and anchors from stirrups. In June, the brigantines were finished, and the floods floated them into the river.

On July 3, 1543, the 320 Spaniards and 100 Indian slaves set sail. Seventeen days later, they reached the sea. After experiencing hunger, thirst, and storms, they landed at the mouth of the Panuco River in Mexico on September 10, 1543. They were warmly received by their countrymen.

In October, Maldonado arrived at Vera Cruz with news of De Soto’s fate. When Dona Isabel learned of her husband’s death, she died within a few days. No one now desired to tempt fate in Florida.

The legacy of Hernando De Soto remains complex and controversial. While his expedition contributed to the European understanding of the southeastern United States, it also resulted in significant loss of life, enslavement, and cultural disruption among the indigenous populations. His relentless pursuit of gold and his unwavering will left an enduring mark, both positive and negative, on the history of the region.