Immigration – The First Gateway
For countless individuals seeking a new life in America, the journey began with a profound and often daunting experience: passing through an emotional gateway. For the vast majority of immigrants, that gateway was Ellis Island, situated in New York Harbor. More specifically, it is located in Jersey City, New Jersey. Ellis Island served as the primary point of entry, the initial stepping stone on their path toward fresh starts and uncharted opportunities within the United States. While Ellis Island represented an "Island of Hope" for many, it tragically became known as the "Island of Tears" for others, a place where families were torn apart and individuals were denied the chance to realize their American dreams.
Between the years 1820 and 1920, a staggering number of people – estimated to be over 34 million – made the courageous decision to leave their homelands, predominantly in Europe, to forge new lives in America. While many would eventually venture beyond the bustling cities of the East Coast in pursuit of the freedoms and opportunities offered by the American West, the initial question remains: who were these immigrants, and what drove them to seek their fortunes westward?
The immigrant population arriving on American shores was incredibly diverse, representing a wide array of European backgrounds. The earliest arrivals, spanning from 1820 to 1840, predominantly hailed from England, Ireland, and Germany. This first wave of new Americans was largely comprised of individuals seeking to rebuild their lives in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars. In 1845, Ireland was struck by the first of several devastating potato famines, leading to widespread starvation and death. Over 1.5 million Irish people emigrated to escape the ravages of famine. Germans, too, sought refuge in America, fleeing from brutal political suppression following the 1848 revolution and seeking greater economic prospects. These groups collectively swelled the immigrant population to over three million in less than two decades.
Following the American Civil War, a "new" wave of immigrants arrived from countries such as Italy, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Poland, each with their own unique motivations. The Industrial Revolution played a significant role in shaping their decisions. In Europe, the rise of large manufacturers led to increased competition and job losses for many craftsmen. Simultaneously, agricultural communities in the "old country" were enticed to leave their farms in search of new land or employment opportunities in America’s burgeoning cities. These early arrivals often settled in the large eastern cities of the United States, hoping to find greater job opportunities.
However, as these cities expanded, so too did the population of the lower and middle classes. Many found themselves facing the same pressures they had sought to escape in Europe, including overcrowding and restrictions on freedom of speech, religion, and political expression. Capitalizing on these anxieties, land speculators began promoting the American West as a "land of milk and honey" and the "Garden of Eden," a place brimming with opportunity and promise. These promoters operated both in Europe and the United States, with some acting as agents for steamship and immigration companies or land grant railroads. Others represented Western real estate businesses or state and territorial immigration offices. Authors of newspapers and guidebooks, as well as European travelers who returned to their homelands, further fueled the westward movement. Sadly, many employed deceptive sales tactics, including outright lies and false advertising, to boost profits for themselves and their companies. Despite these dubious practices, the lure of a new beginning proved irresistible, with an average of 400,000 immigrants arriving annually by the 1850s.
The journey to America was fraught with sacrifice, danger, and hardship. Most immigrants understood that they would likely never see their friends, family, or homeland again. The process began with obtaining the necessary paperwork, selling personal belongings or real estate to finance the trip, and packing all possessions into makeshift bundles and boxes. For those living inland, transportation to the coast had to be arranged via rail, wagon, carriage, boat, or even on foot. Upon reaching a port town, emigrants faced the threat of thieves and corrupt businessmen who sought to exploit them at the docks.
The ocean voyage itself represented one of the most perilous stages of the journey. In the era of wooden sailing vessels, crossing the Atlantic could take anywhere from two to three months. Living conditions on board were abysmal, particularly in steerage, where the majority of immigrants traveled. Mortality rates were high, especially among the old and the young, and diseases such as typhus, cholera, and dysentery were rampant. Shipwrecks, storms at sea, and severe seasickness further plagued the travelers. The introduction of the steamship proved to be a pivotal improvement, reducing the average duration of an Atlantic voyage to approximately two weeks by the 1870s.
While America boasted several ports of entry, New York City was the busiest, particularly following the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825. In the early 1800s, upon a ship’s arrival in New York Harbor, a doctor would travel from a Quarantine office on Staten Island to inspect passengers for contagious diseases. If the ship passed inspection, the new arrivals could proceed through customs and begin their new lives in America. However, unscrupulous runners and agents representing railroads, steamboats, boarding houses, and money exchange services awaited them at the exits. Armed thugs, traveling with these company "representatives," often coerced immigrants into accompanying them, exploiting the newcomers and stealing their possessions.
In response to these dangers and the unsanitary traveling conditions in steerage compartments on sailing vessels, New York State established a commission in 1847 to inspect ships and investigate the onshore activities of known thieves and swindlers. In 1855, a new immigrant landing depot called Castle Garden was constructed in Battery Park on the southern tip of Manhattan, aiming to protect the new arrivals.
Castle Garden, originally built in 1811 as Castle Clinton, served as a Federal fort protecting New York and its harbor from British invasion. In 1823, the fort was ceded to the city and repurposed as a concert hall and reception center for visiting dignitaries. By the early 1850s, Battery Park was being expanded through landfill, prompting city commissioners to establish a permanent immigration landing depot there. Immigrants would now be brought directly to Castle Garden after passing through customs, where they could receive assistance and directions.
An observer in 1856 noted that after being registered by an immigration clerk, the new arrivals could "…enjoy themselves in the depot by taking their meals, cleansing themselves in the spacious bathrooms, or promenading on the galleries or the dock. The utmost order prevailed; all requisite information was given to passengers by officials conversing in different languages; letters from friends were transmitted to landing passengers, bringing them money or directions on how to proceed, etc."
Reflecting on the westward expansion, the New York Herald reported on May 15, 1856, "It is pleasant to learn that the immigrants who have lately arrived have been of a better class than usual. They have brought with them an average of $72 per head. Let them come, but keep out of politics for five years. There’s plenty of room out West yet."
Once immigrants departed the Eastern cities, they embarked on westward journeys using various modes of transportation. By the 1830s, well-established trails and roads crisscrossed the East. Those who could afford it traveled westward by horse, wagon, and stagecoach. However, water transportation remained the most efficient and affordable option. The Erie Canal, starting in New York City, provided the easiest route to bypass the Appalachian Mountains. Water and land transportation from Buffalo, New York, allowed travelers to cross Ohio to the Ohio River, where flatboats, keelboats, and steamboats navigated the waters. Settlers traveled down this river to Cairo, Illinois, and then ascended the Mississippi River by steamboat to St. Louis, Missouri. While some settled in St. Louis, others continued their westward journey.
Although the number of immigrants decreased somewhat during the Civil War, the tide surged again in the 1870s and 1880s, with as many as 14 million people arriving. Some were drawn by the free land offered under the Homestead Act of 1862. Others saw an opportunity to escape the constraints of social class or oppressive rulers in their homelands. The railroads that stretched across the West after the war facilitated faster and more convenient travel to their destinations. Railroad companies also offered free land to encourage settlement in their service areas. For Russians, Swedes, and Norwegians heading to Minnesota and Dakota, and Germans and French bound for Kansas and Nebraska, America represented the promise of owning a farm and creating a new life.
By the 1890s, the influx of immigrants had become overwhelming. In response to the unique challenges of processing such a large number of newcomers, a dedicated immigration station was built in New York Harbor. Named Ellis Island, the station was constructed on a primarily man-made island and completed in 1892. A fire destroyed the buildings in 1897, leading to the construction of a new station by 1900. The station processed an average of 500,000 visitors annually, with the peak year of 1907 seeing 1,004,756 immigrants pass through its doors. During the first two decades of the 20th century, restrictions on immigration gradually curtailed the flow until the Immigration Act of 1924 brought this significant era to an end.
Ellis Island, after serving various functions, was abandoned by the Immigration Service in 1954. By 1965, it had fallen into severe disrepair when the National Park Service acquired it. Extensive restoration efforts between 1984 and 1990 returned the site to its appearance around 1900. Today, the restored immigrant station and the extensive Museum of American Immigration on Ellis Island provide visitors with insights not only into the experiences of 20th-century immigrants but also into the epic journeys of all those who left their native lands to settle in America. Immigrants passed through two primary gateways to reach new opportunities in the American West: the first being the eastern port cities and the second in St. Louis, Missouri.