Juan de Onate y Salazar – Spanish Conquistador
Juan de Onate y Salazar, a figure etched in the annals of southwestern history, stands as a pivotal, albeit controversial, Spanish conquistador. He is primarily remembered for establishing the colony of New Mexico for Spain and subsequently becoming its inaugural governor, thereby leaving an indelible mark on the region’s cultural and political landscape. His story is one of ambition, exploration, and the complex interplay of cultures that defined the early colonial era.
Born around 1550, likely in the bustling silver mining town of Zacatecas, Mexico, Juan de Onate y Salazar’s lineage provided him with a significant head start in life. His parents were Spanish-Basque colonists who had amassed considerable wealth through their involvement in the lucrative silver mining industry. Cristobal de Onate, his father, was himself a notable conquistador, colonial official, and silver baron, recognized for founding the city of Guadalajara in 1531. Dona Catalina Salazar y de la Cadena, his mother, further solidified his connection to the Spanish elite in the New World. This privileged upbringing afforded Juan de Onate y Salazar the education, resources, and social connections that would later propel him into a position of power and influence. Further cementing his status, Juan de Onate married Isabel de Tolosa Cortes de Moctezuma, a direct descendant of Hernan Cortes, the notorious conqueror of the Aztec Empire. This union linked him to one of the most powerful and historically significant families in New Spain.
The late 16th century saw Spain grappling with its international standing. Following the devastating defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, King Philip II sought to restore his country’s prestige on the global stage. Inspired by the earlier successes of conquistadors like Hernan Cortes and Francisco Pizarro, he directed the viceroy of New Spain to organize an ambitious expedition. The primary objectives were twofold: to locate and colonize a supposedly rich civilization believed to lie north of Mexico, and to expand the reach of Roman Catholicism by establishing new missions. This quest for wealth, power, and spiritual dominance fueled the Spanish Crown’s interest in the unexplored territories of North America. The lure of rumored riches, echoing the tales of the Seven Cities of Cibola and the legendary Gran Quivira, proved irresistible.
In 1595, the viceroy of New Spain entrusted Juan de Onate y Salazar with the formidable task of leading and financing this crucial expedition. Despite the previous disappointment of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado’s fruitless search for the golden cities of Cibola decades earlier, Onate remained optimistic that he would uncover the fabled Gran Quivira. Driven by ambition and a thirst for discovery, Onate meticulously prepared for the journey. In January 1598, the expedition commenced, comprising approximately 400 individuals, including settlers, soldiers, and a substantial amount of livestock. This diverse group represented the core of the future colony, bringing with them the skills, resources, and aspirations necessary to establish a new Spanish presence in the region. The expedition followed a northern route, eventually crossing the Rio Grande at the location of present-day El Paso, Texas.
On April 30, 1598, a significant moment occurred as Juan de Onate y Salazar formally claimed all of New Mexico for the Spanish Crown. This act of possession marked the beginning of Spanish colonization in the area, asserting their sovereignty over the indigenous populations and the vast territories they inhabited. The expedition continued its northward journey along the Rio Grande, eventually reaching the area of present-day northern New Mexico. There, they established an encampment near the Tewa pueblo of Ohkay Owingeh. Initially, the local Indigenous people offered assistance, providing essential resources and knowledge that aided the Spanish in their early efforts to establish a foothold in the region. This interaction, however, would soon be overshadowed by conflict and exploitation.
The Spanish settlers, under the leadership of Juan de Onate y Salazar, constructed San Gabriel, which became the first capital of New Mexico. Onate assumed the role of the province’s first governor, consolidating his authority and setting the stage for the implementation of Spanish colonial policies. He dispatched exploring parties in various directions, venturing westward towards the vicinity of modern-day Flagstaff, Arizona, and eastward towards the area of present-day Amarillo, Texas. These expeditions were aimed at mapping the surrounding territories, identifying potential resources, and establishing contact with other Indigenous groups. However, the initial optimism soon faded as the colonists realized that the region was not abundant in silver, the primary motivator for many of them.
Disappointment began to spread among the settlers, and many expressed a desire to return to Mexico. However, Onate, determined to maintain his position and fulfill his mandate, refused to allow them to leave. His leadership became increasingly autocratic, and he reportedly executed several settlers who attempted to desert the colony. Furthermore, his treatment of the local Indigenous populations became increasingly brutal. Accounts document widespread instances of violence, enslavement, and mutilation inflicted upon hundreds of Indigenous men, women, and children. These actions painted a stark picture of the harsh realities of Spanish colonization and the devastating impact it had on the native inhabitants of New Mexico.
In 1601, driven by his persistent belief in the existence of Quivira, Juan de Onate y Salazar personally led another exploration. His party followed the Canadian River eastward across the Texas Panhandle, venturing into Oklahoma and eventually heading northeast towards the Wichita Indian villages located at the confluence of the Arkansas and Little Arkansas Rivers, near present-day Wichita, Kansas. Similar to Coronado before him, Onate discovered only simple mud huts and encountered hostile Indigenous populations. Disheartened and disillusioned, his expedition returned to New Mexico. During his absence, the majority of his settlers seized the opportunity to abandon the struggling colony and returned to Mexico City.
Undeterred by setbacks, Onate embarked on his most ambitious expedition in 1605. He traced the course of the Colorado River, passing near the Grand Canyon, all the way to the Gulf of California. This journey demonstrated his determination and his desire to map and understand the vast territories under his control. However, upon his return to New Mexico in 1606, he found the colony in a state of disarray, further compounding the challenges he faced. Later that year, due to ongoing problems within the colony and mounting financial debt, the Spanish Crown removed Onate from his position and replaced him with Don Pedro de Peralta.
In 1609, Onate witnessed the founding of Santa Fe, which would later become the permanent capital of New Mexico. However, his own reputation remained tarnished by accusations of mismanagement and cruelty. In 1613, he traveled to Mexico City to defend himself against these long-standing charges. He faced accusations of cruelty, immorality, mismanagement, dereliction of duties, and false reporting. As a result, he was fined and banished from New Mexico for life and from Mexico City for four years. Undeterred, he later traveled to Spain to appeal the charges and clear his name. Ultimately, he was exonerated.
Juan de Onate y Salazar, sometimes referred to as the "Last Conquistador," passed away in Spain on June 3, 1626. His legacy remains complex and controversial. While he is recognized for his role in establishing Spanish presence in New Mexico, his actions and the impact of his rule on the Indigenous populations cannot be ignored. Gaspar Perez de Villagra, an expedition captain, chronicled Onate’s conquest of New Mexico’s indigenous peoples in his epic Historia de Nuevo Mexico from 1610, providing a valuable, albeit biased, account of this pivotal period in southwestern history.