Lee’s Last 100 Days
The closing chapter of the American Civil War, a period marked by strategic brilliance, desperate resistance, and the inexorable advance of the Union forces, is vividly captured in the narrative of Lee’s Last 100 Days. As 1864 drew to a close, President Abraham Lincoln, buoyed by the Union victory in Savannah, Georgia, entrusted the final stages of the conflict to his most capable generals, Ulysses S. Grant and William T. Sherman. This period witnessed the culmination of years of bloody conflict, with the fate of the Confederacy hanging precariously in the balance.
Grant, stationed at City Point, issued directives on December 27, 1864, instructing Sherman to undertake a march overland towards Richmond, Virginia. Sherman, ever the decisive commander, acknowledged the order on December 31st, committing to execute this final phase of Grant’s sweeping strategy. The ensuing 100 days became a testament to the application of warfare principles, demonstrating the practical reality behind strategic concepts. The overarching objective was clear: Grant and General George Meade would relentlessly pressure General Robert E. Lee, while Sherman spearheaded a devastating northward invasion through the Carolinas, ultimately converging with Meade’s Army of the Potomac along the James River. This strategy, rooted in the principles of massing strength and employing an economy of force, aimed to place Lee in an untenable position.
The Union strategy sought to isolate Lee by severing his connections with other Confederate commanders and trapping him between two formidable Union armies. A key element of surprise was to be achieved by reuniting Sherman’s original corps with forces under John Schofield, who were to move from central Tennessee via rail, river, and ocean transport to the Carolina coast. With a robust, centralized logistical system supported by protected Atlantic supply ships, Grant and Sherman were poised to bring Lee’s Last 100 Days in Richmond to a decisive end.
Aware of the impending doom, Robert E. Lee, a tactician of exceptional skill, communicated to Confederate President Jefferson Davis the necessity of concentrating Confederate forces for a final, desperate stand. In February 1865, the Confederate Congress, recognizing Lee’s strategic acumen, bestowed upon him the supreme command of all Confederate armies – a largely symbolic gesture given the deteriorating circumstances. The reality was that Lee’s ability to influence events was rapidly diminishing.
Sherman’s campaign through Columbia, South Carolina, proved to be a brutal affair, surpassing even the destruction witnessed in Georgia. The Union troops, fueled by the belief that South Carolina bore significant responsibility for initiating the war, meted out harsh punishment. In February, Sherman seized Wilmington, North Carolina, the Confederacy’s last remaining port, further tightening the noose around the beleaguered Confederate forces. General Joseph E. Johnston, recently reinstated to command, was tasked with halting Sherman’s advance. Despite interposing his relatively small army of approximately 21,000 men in the path of two of Sherman’s corps at Bentonville, North Carolina, on March 19, 1865, Johnston’s efforts proved insufficient. Although his initial attack yielded some ground, the arrival of additional Union forces compelled Johnston to continue his retreat, marking the end of any significant attempts to impede Sherman’s relentless progress.
Toward the end of March, Grant intensified his efforts against Lee’s right (western) flank along a 38-mile front at Richmond and Petersburg. The return of Sheridan’s cavalry and the VI Corps from the Shenandoah Valley significantly bolstered Grant’s forces, bringing the total strength immediately under his command to 101,000 infantry, 14,700 cavalry, and 9,000 artillery. In stark contrast, Lee commanded a force of only 46,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry, and 5,000 artillery.
On March 29, Grant initiated his strategic maneuver to the left, sending Sheridan and his cavalry ahead via Dinwiddie Court House to strike at Burke’s Station, a vital intersection of the Southside and Danville Railroads. Simultaneously, Grant’s main body moved to envelop Lee’s right flank. Alerted to the impending threat, Lee responded by moving west. Lieutenant General Ambrose P. Hill, known for his aggressive approach, led his corps out of their trenches and launched an assault on the Union left in the swampy forests surrounding White Oak Road. While Hill initially pushed back Major General Gouverneur K. Warren’s V Corps, Warren launched a counterattack and, by March 31, had driven Hill back to his trenches.
Meanwhile, on the same day, Sheridan advanced towards Five Forks, a crucial road junction southwest of Petersburg, where he encountered a strong Confederate force consisting of cavalry and two infantry divisions under Major General George E. Pickett, dispatched by Lee to thwart Sheridan’s advance. Pickett launched an attack, driving Sheridan back to Dinwiddie Court House, but Sheridan’s forces dug in and halted Pickett’s advance.
Instead of retreating to reconnect with Hill, Pickett entrenched at Five Forks, creating a gap between his forces and Hill’s, whose failure to destroy Warren had left Warren’s corps positioned in between. Sheridan, empowered by Grant to take control of any nearby infantry corps of the Army of the Potomac, sought to exploit this vulnerability. He urged Warren to attack Pickett’s exposed rear and destroy his force, but Warren’s slow movements allowed Pickett to consolidate his position. On April 1, Sheridan launched another attack but failed to achieve a decisive victory due to Warren’s sluggish advance and misplacement of his corps. However, the Union attack struck Pickett’s position with full force on both flanks late in the afternoon. Outflanked and overwhelmed, Pickett ordered a retreat, but it was too late to prevent the loss of nearly half his force of 10,000 as prisoners. The events at Five Forks proved pivotal in shaping Lee’s Last 100 Days.
Grant renewed his assault against Lee’s right on April 2, breaking the Confederate line and forcing it back northward. The Federals captured the Southside Railroad, prompting the Confederates to retreat towards Petersburg. Lee then withdrew General James Longstreet’s corps from the ruins of Richmond to bolster the line. During this day’s fighting, General Hill was killed. With his forces stretched to their breaking point, Lee made the agonizing decision to abandon Richmond and the Petersburg fortifications. He embarked on a desperate race west towards the Danville Railroad, hoping to reach Lynchburg or Danville, break free, and eventually unite with Johnston’s forces.
However, Grant had finally cornered Lee in the open. He pursued relentlessly and swiftly, positioning troops behind Lee (east of him) and south of him on his left flank, while Sheridan’s cavalry dashed ahead to cut off Lee’s escape. A running fight ensued from April 2-6, during which Lieutenant General Richard S. Ewell’s corps was surrounded and captured at Sayler’s Creek. Lee’s rations dwindled, and desertions and straggling became rampant among his men. Finally, Sheridan led his men to Appomattox Court House, strategically blocking Lee’s line of retreat. The relentless pressure of Lee’s Last 100 Days had taken its toll.
Recognizing the futility of further resistance, Lee resolved to seek terms of surrender. He met Grant at the McLean House in Appomattox on April 9, 1865. Lee, the epitome of Southern chivalry, impeccably dressed and composed, requested terms from Grant. Lincoln, reserving all political decisions for himself, had authorized Grant to address only purely military matters. Despite appearing less imposing than Lee, Grant displayed equal chivalry. He accepted Lee’s surrender, allowing 28,356 paroled Confederates to keep their horses and mules, provided rations to the Army of Northern Virginia, and prohibited the Army of the Potomac soldiers from celebrating their victory over their former adversaries. Johnston surrendered to Sherman on April 26, and the last major Trans-Mississippi force surrendered on May 26, bringing the devastating conflict to a close. The finality of the situation underscores the significance of Lee’s Last 100 Days.