Native American Ordeals
The concept of an ordeal, initially a trial to ascertain guilt or innocence, has evolved to encompass any significant test of courage, endurance, or fortitude. Within the diverse tapestry of North American tribes, the term "ordeal" takes on two primary meanings: those employed to establish culpability and resolve disputes, and those undertaken to gain material or supernatural advantages.
The first category of Native American ordeals mirrors the original intention of the term, focusing on determining guilt, particularly in cases involving witchcraft. Among the Tsimshian people, if an individual was believed to have died due to bewitchment, a specific ritual was performed. The deceased’s heart would be removed, and a red-hot stone pressed against it. Simultaneously, those performing the ritual would voice a wish for the death of the suspected perpetrator. If the heart burst during this process, it was interpreted as confirmation of their suspicions and the belief that their wish would be fulfilled. Conversely, if the heart remained intact, the suspicions were deemed unfounded.
The Haida tribe employed a different method for identifying witches. A priest would recite the names of every person in the village while in the presence of a live mouse. The priest would then carefully observe the mouse’s movements, interpreting its behavior as an indicator of the guilty party.
The Tlingit people approached witchcraft accusations with a more coercive method. An individual suspected of witchcraft would be bound and held captive for eight to ten days, the intention being to extract a confession. If the suspect survived this period, they were released. However, confession offered immediate freedom and carried no severe consequences beyond the obligation to undo the supposed spell. This leniency likely incentivized confessions, blurring the line between genuine guilt and coerced admission. While presented as an ordeal, it functioned more as a form of torture aimed at securing a confession, with the victim’s guilt practically assumed from the outset.
Beyond identifying wrongdoers, Native American ordeals also served as a means of resolving conflicts between individuals or groups. Victory in these contests was often attributed to supernatural intervention rather than purely physical prowess. One example from the Comanche tribe details a situation where animosity between two men escalated to the point where reconciliation seemed impossible. To resolve the dispute, a duel was arranged. The men’s left arms were tied together, and each was given a knife in their right hand. They were then compelled to fight until both collapsed, effectively ending the conflict with finality.
A Teton myth recounts a similar duel, underscoring the prevalence of this method of conflict resolution. The Eskimo, also known as the Inuit, practiced similar contests. When two Eskimo groups encountered each other for the first time, each side would select a champion. These champions would then strike each other on the side of the head or the bared shoulders until one conceded defeat. Among ancient Eskimo bands such as the Netchilirmiut and Aivilirmiut, champions contested by pressing the points of their knives against each other’s cheeks, testing pain tolerance and resolve. These contests could be imposed upon individuals traveling through unfamiliar territories, making them matters of life and death. Chinook myths also mention comparable endurance tests among supernatural beings, suggesting a cultural significance that extended beyond the mortal realm.
Disputes between towns on the North Pacific coast were frequently settled by designating a day for battle. The people of both sides would don their hide and wooden armor and engage in a pitched battle. The outcome was determined by the death or incapacitation of one or two prominent figures, symbolizing the defeat of their respective town. Contests between strangers or representatives of different towns or social groups could also be resolved through games. At feasts on the North Pacific coast, someone who had made careless or offensive remarks towards the host’s people might be forced to consume a tray of unappetizing food or even swallow urine as a form of public humiliation and recompense. Often, two individuals would compete to see who could empty a tray of such substances the fastest.
The second type of Native American ordeals focused on personal development and the attainment of supernatural power. These encompassed the hardships imposed on young boys to cultivate strength, the fasts and restrictions placed on girls during puberty, and the trials youths underwent to acquire supernatural helpers. They also included the solitary fasts undertaken by individuals seeking to become priests or medicine men, or by those desiring greater supernatural abilities. These endurance tests were particularly prominent during preparations for ceremonies or initiations into secret societies.
The initiation of a youth into the tribe’s mysteries typically occurred around puberty and varied significantly from tribe to tribe. Pueblo children, upon reaching an age deemed appropriate for religious instruction, were subjected to ceremonial flogging. Similarly, the Alibamu and other tribes of the Gulf states required children to pass through a line of individuals who whipped them until they drew blood.
The Huskanaw was an ordeal among the Virginia Indians designed to prepare young men for the responsibilities of adulthood. It involved solitary confinement and the administration of emetics, with the intention of "obliterating remembrance of the past, and leaving the mind free for the reception of new impressions." Among tribes where individuals sought supernatural helpers, a youth would be sent alone into the wilderness or mountains for an extended period. There, they would fast and sometimes ingest specific medicines to facilitate contact with their guardian spirit.
Chiefs among the Haida, Tlingit, Tsimshian, and other North Pacific coast tribes also underwent similar ordeals when seeking to increase wealth, achieve success in war, or prolong their lives. These practices were also common among priests and medicine men striving to enhance their powers. During these ordeals, they would chew certain herbs to aid in communicating with spirits. The use of the "black drink" by Muskhogean tribes served a similar purpose.
During initiation into a secret society on the North Pacific coast, a youth would fast and vanish into the woods for a specified duration, where they were expected to commune with the spirit of the society in complete isolation. Discovery of a Kwakiutl youth during this time could result in the discoverer killing the youth and claiming the secret society privileges for themselves. On the plains, participants in the Sun Dance endured piercing of the flesh. The principal participants in the Sun Dance had skewers inserted through the muscles of their backs, to which thongs were attached and fastened to the Sun Dance Pole. Sometimes, individuals were raised so high that they barely touched the ground. They would then lean against the skewers until they tore free. Another participant might have the thongs fastened to a skull, which they would drag around the entire camping circle, facing any obstacles without touching the thongs or skull with their hands.
During the Hidatsa ceremony of Naxpike, a variation of the Sun Dance, devotees pierced their bodies with arrows. In one instance, a warrior reputedly tied a thirsty horse to his body using thongs passed through holes in his flesh. He then led the horse to water, preventing it from drinking without touching the thongs, and brought it back in triumph. The Cheyenne had a unique ordeal for one of their societies, walking barefoot on hot coals.
Initiation into the Chippewa and Menominee society of the Midewiwin involved being "shot" with a medicine bag, causing the initiate to fall to the ground. A secret society spirit or the guardian spirit of a northwest coast priest produced a similar effect. In the Omaha society called Washashka, an initiate was "shot" in the Adam’s apple by something said to be taken from an otter’s head. As part of the Hopi initiation ceremony, a man had to carry a feathered prayer stick to a distant spring, run back within a certain time limit. Chosen men of the Zuni were required to walk to a lake 45 miles away, clad only in a breechcloth, to deposit plume-sticks and pray for rain. One of the ordeals for an initiate into the Zuni Priesthood of the Bow involved sitting naked for hours on a large ant hill, exposed to the bites of countless ants. During the winter solstice, Hopi priests sat naked in a circle and had gourds of ice-cold water poured over them.
Specific regulations were also observed before war expeditions, hunting trips, or the preparation of medicines. Medicines were generally prepared by individuals after periods of fasting, abstinence from women, and isolation in the wilderness. Before a hunt, a party leader would fast for a specific period and count down the days until one that he considered his lucky day. On the northwest coast, warriors bathed in the sea during winter, then whipped each other with branches. Until the first encounter with the enemy, they fasted and abstained from water as much as possible. Elsewhere, warriors sometimes spent time in the sweat lodge. Among the tribes of the east and some others, prisoners were forced to run between two lines of people armed with clubs, tomahawks, and other weapons. Only those who survived to reach the chief’s house or another designated mark were spared.
The underlying purpose of most tortures was to undermine the victim’s self-control and elicit some sign of weakness. Conversely, the victim aimed to maintain an impassive demeanor, responding to their tormentors with scorn and defiance until the very end.
These Native American ordeals, though diverse in their specific practices, reflect a common thread: a commitment to testing and shaping individuals, resolving conflicts, and seeking connection with the supernatural. They provide a glimpse into the rich and complex cultures of the North American tribes.
