Native Peoples of Iowa

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Native Peoples of Iowa

Native Peoples of Iowa

For millennia, the land that is now the state of Iowa has been home to a rich tapestry of Native American cultures. Each tribe, whether residing here for generations or utilizing the region for shorter durations, possessed distinct languages, traditions, and cultural practices. Their stories, etched into the very soil of Iowa, provide a compelling narrative of adaptation, conflict, and resilience.

The story of Iowa’s indigenous peoples begins long before European contact, extending back to the receding glaciers and the enigmatic Mound Builders. These early inhabitants left behind enduring testaments to their presence, shaping the landscape and influencing the cultures that followed. Understanding their legacy is essential to appreciating the full depth of Iowa’s history.

The earliest known inhabitants, contemporaneous with the receding Mississippi Valley glacier, were a people described as physically resembling Eskimos – short, stout, and with flat facial features. Their way of life was undoubtedly dictated by the harsh environment at the edge of the ice sheet. Unfortunately, little concrete information remains about this group, leaving their existence shrouded in mystery. More tangible evidence exists for their successors, the Mound Builders.

The Mound Builders represent a significant advancement in civilization compared to the glacier dwellers. Their presence is marked by the numerous mounds found throughout the Mississippi Valley and eastward, particularly concentrated east of the Mississippi River. In Iowa, these earthen structures are found in counties such as Jackson, Louisa, Clayton, and Scott, with the Effigy Mounds in northeast Iowa being the most prominent and well-studied examples. The Effigy Mounds are significant to the Native Peoples of Iowa.

These mounds, situated along the Upper Mississippi River and extending eastward towards Lake Michigan, take on diverse forms. Some are conical, serving as burial sites. Others are linear or rectangular, believed to have been used for ceremonial purposes, their precise function remaining a subject of ongoing archaeological inquiry. The most distinctive are the effigy mounds, shaped like animals such as birds, bears, deer, bison, lynx, turtles, panthers, and representations of water spirits. Some archaeologists speculate that these mounds were built to align with celestial events or seasonal observances, while others propose they served as territorial markers or boundaries between different groups. The Effigy Mounds are significant to the Native Peoples of Iowa.

The animal-shaped mounds have become iconic symbols of the Effigy Mound Culture. Along the Mississippi River in northeast Iowa and southwest Wisconsin, bear and bird effigies are particularly prevalent. Closer to Lakes Michigan and Winnebago, earthworks resembling water spirits, historically referred to as turtle and panther mounds, are more common. The Effigy Mound Culture extends from Dubuque, Iowa, north into southeast Minnesota, across southern Wisconsin from the Mississippi River to Lake Michigan, and along the Wisconsin-Illinois border. The counties of Dubuque, Clayton, and Allamakee in Iowa are home to the majority of effigy mounds found within the state. The Effigy Mounds are significant to the Native Peoples of Iowa.

Beyond the Effigy Mounds, other mound groups can be found throughout Iowa, primarily near riverbanks – along the Iowa and Des Moines Rivers, and other tributaries of the Mississippi. These mounds were typically constructed on hill crests or terraces, potentially for protection from floods or as defensive positions. Archaeological investigations of these mounds have yielded skeletons, stone weapons, pottery fragments, and rudimentary engravings on stone. Intriguingly, stone images of elephants and other animals no longer native to Iowa have also been unearthed, prompting further questions about the Mound Builders’ knowledge and interactions with the wider world. The Effigy Mounds are significant to the Native Peoples of Iowa.

The decline of the Mound Builders appears linked to the arrival of more warlike tribes from both the east and west. For centuries, the Algonquin peoples had occupied the Atlantic Coast, encountering Norse explorers as early as the year 1000 and later the English under John Cabot. Over time, some Algonquin tribes migrated westward, utilizing the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes to expand into the Mississippi Valley. Here, at the Upper Mississippi River, they encountered the Sioux, migrating eastward from the Rocky Mountains. The Effigy Mounds are significant to the Native Peoples of Iowa.

The Dakota Sioux, having crossed the Rocky Mountains and followed the Missouri River and its tributaries eastward, proved to be formidable adversaries. These western Indians were even more aggressive than the Algonquin tribes of the Atlantic Coast. The ensuing clashes between these groups led to the decline and displacement of the Mound Builders, transforming Iowa into a battleground. The Effigy Mounds are significant to the Native Peoples of Iowa.

With the decline of the Mound Builders, the Upper Mississippi Valley became contested territory between the Sioux and Algonquin tribes. The Sioux dominated the northern regions of Iowa and Minnesota, extending into Wisconsin. The Algonquin tribes pushed northward to the Missouri River, claiming the rest of Iowa and northern Missouri. The boundary between these rival groups stretched roughly from the mouth of the Upper Iowa River to the mouth of the Big Sioux River. This boundary witnessed frequent conflict between the Sioux, known for their cruelty and boldness, and the Sac and Fox, renowned for their craftiness and bravery.

Iowa’s abundant natural resources made it a highly desirable territory for these tribes. The hills and valleys teemed with deer, while buffalo roamed the prairies. Wild turkeys inhabited the woods, and prairie chickens and ruffed grouse thrived in the meadows and thickets. Numerous lakes and streams provided fish and served as waterways for bark canoes. Plums, grapes, hickory nuts, hazelnuts, and maize were readily available, creating a veritable paradise for those who knew how to utilize the land.

The Mississippi River to the east and the Missouri River to the west, along with the rivers traversing the interior, served as crucial transportation routes. The climate, with its cold winters and warm summers, provided a stimulating environment. The air was clean and the skies were blue, unpolluted by the smoke of modern cities, as nature intended.

The allure of Iowa’s natural beauty and resources explains why Native Americans, even after being relocated, repeatedly returned to the land they loved. Even tribes from Michigan and Wisconsin, brought to Iowa by the government, preferred their new surroundings to their former homes.

The first documented encounter between a European and Native Americans in what is now Iowa occurred in 1673, when Father Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet, French explorers navigating the Mississippi River, landed in southeastern Iowa. Here, they met members of the Illinois tribe, who identified themselves as "Illini," meaning "men," a testament to their perceived bravery and superiority.

Around the same time, historical records mention the Mascouten tribe. The name Muscatine is believed to be derived from this tribe, who once inhabited Muscatine Island and surrounding areas. The name is said to mean "place having no woods" or "fire prairie," reflecting the frequent fires that swept through Muscatine County.

The Mascouten had vanished from Iowa long before significant European settlement, possibly becoming extinct or merging with other tribes. They were described as cruel and treacherous, and were known to have defeated the Sac and Fox in a major battle near the mouth of the Iowa River.

While the Illini and Mascouten were Algonquin, the Dakota tribe known as the Ioway resided among them for many years. The name "Ioway," with variations such as Ayoua, Ayouway, Ayoa, and Aiouex, ultimately gave the state of Iowa its name. The Ioway occupied southern Iowa at the time of early European exploration, with their primary village located in the northwest corner of Van Buren County, the site of present-day Iowaville. Other villages were situated in Davis, Wapello, and Mahaska Counties, the latter named after an Ioway chief.

The Ioway referred to themselves as "Dusty-noses," claiming descent from a people who lived on a sandbar where the wind constantly blew dust into their faces. They were known for their bravery and intelligence and were enemies of the other Dakota tribes due to the treacherous killing of an Ioway chief by a Sioux band on the Iowa River.

The Ioway were organized into clans, including Eagle, Wolf, Bear, Pigeon, Elk, Beaver, Buffalo, and Snake, distinguished by their unique hairstyles. War and disease decimated the tribe, and after a massacre by the Sac and Fox in 1823, they ceased to play a significant role in the region’s history.

The Sac and Fox tribes hold a prominent position in the Algonquin history of Iowa. The Meskwaki, residing on their reservation in Tama County, are Fox Indians and represent the only tribe with a permanent settlement within the state.

Around 1712, the Sac and Fox formed a close alliance. They had previously lived with other Algonquin tribes in Wisconsin and Michigan before migrating together to the Mississippi River. By 1805, the Sac had established four villages along the Mississippi River: one at the head of the Des Moines Rapids, another 60 miles upstream, one on Rock River behind Moline, and another on the Iowa River.

Fox villages were located at the mouth of the Turkey River, the site of present-day Dubuque, Rock Rapids, and Davenport. The Davenport village was one of the oldest Indian settlements on the upper Mississippi River. A Sac village once stood at the mouth of the Wapsipinicon River in Clinton County, but the largest Native American community in the region was located at the confluence of the Mississippi and Rock Rivers in Illinois, known as Black Hawk’s Town or Saukenuk.

Generally, the Fox frequented the west side of the Mississippi River, while the Sac inhabited the east side. Eventually, the U.S. government relocated all of them to Iowa.

The word "Sac" is believed to be a corruption of "Sau-kie" or "Sau-kee," pronounced with a guttural accent on the last syllable. One interpretation of the name is "man with the red badge," referring to the Sac practice of covering their heads with red clay during mourning. Similarly, "Mus-qua-kie" is thought to mean "man with a yellow badge," as this tribe used yellow clay for mourning. The French referred to the Mus-qua-kie as "Renards," or Foxes, due to their alleged thieving habits. After establishing themselves along the Mississippi River, the Sac and Fox became the most powerful Algonquin tribes in and around Iowa.

The Sioux Indians controlled the territory north of the Upper Iowa River and the northwestern portion above the mouth of the Big Sioux River. They were the dominant force on the Iowa prairies, often at odds with other tribes. The frequent conflicts between the Sioux and the tribes to the south prompted government intervention. In 1825, a council of all the Native American tribes in Iowa was convened at Prairie du Chien. The chiefs, adorned in paint and feathers, gathered, each tribe vying for prominence. The Sioux arrived on horseback, while the Sac and Fox traveled up the river in their war canoes, singing and boasting.

Despite the tension between these ancient rivals, order was maintained at the council. A boundary line was established, which the tribes agreed to respect. The Sioux were permitted to hunt north of a line extending from the mouth of the Upper Iowa River through the upper fork of the Des Moines River to the fork of the Big Sioux, and down the Big Sioux River to the Missouri River. The Sac and Fox were to remain south of this line, with permission granted to the Ioway and Otoe, both Dakota tribes, to reside within their territory.

However, the agreement proved difficult to enforce, as war parties frequently crossed the boundary line in search of scalps. In 1830, the United States acquired a forty-mile-wide strip of land, twenty miles on each side of the boundary line, extending from the Mississippi River to the Des Moines River. This strip was designated as the Neutral Ground, where any tribe could hunt and fish without fear of trespassing accusations.

This measure helped to reduce conflicts between the Algonquin, Ioway, and Otoe on one side and the Sioux on the other. In 1841, the government relocated the Winnebago, who had been living in Wisconsin, to the Neutral Ground. The name "Winnebago," meaning "turbid water" in Algonquin, was given to a Dakota tribe claiming to be the ancestors of the Ioway, Otoe, and others. The Winnebago were reluctant to move to the Neutral Ground, caught between the Sac and Fox to the south and the Sioux to the north.

Despite their initial reservations, the Winnebago came to appreciate their reservation in Iowa. After being moved to Minnesota in 1846, they repeatedly returned to Iowa until ultimately forced out by encroaching civilization. Their hunting grounds in Iowa were primarily along the Upper Iowa, Turkey, Cedar, and Wapsipinicon Rivers.

The Potawatomi, along with some Chippewa and Ottawa, all Algonquin tribes, were relocated from Michigan to southwestern Iowa. The name "Potawatomi," meaning "makers of fire," symbolized a free and independent people with their own council fires. The Potawatomi agency was located in Mills County, at Trader’s Point. A village named Miau-mise stood on the bank of the Nishnabotany River, near present-day Lewis in Cass County, and included a burial ground.

In 1846, the Potawatomi and other tribes residing with them were moved further west, but like the Winnebago, they frequently returned to Iowa.

The Sioux maintained a large summer camp near present-day Dubuque. They called themselves Dakota, meaning "united band." Their favorite areas in Iowa were the headwaters of the Des Moines and Iowa Rivers, and the northern lakes. They practiced tree or scaffold burials, while the Algonquin buried their dead in the ground.

For many years afterward, the ancient graves of these numerous Native American tribes could be seen along the Mississippi River.

Iowa Tribes:

  • Dakota Sioux: After the Ioway moved from northern Iowa, the Dakota occupied much of their former territory. They were driven out by the Sac and Fox shortly before and after the Black Hawk War of 1832.
  • Fox: The Fox began moving into Iowa after 1804, and by the end of the Black Hawk War, all had gathered there. In 1842, they ceded their Iowa lands and most moved to Kansas with the Sac, but many returned to Iowa after the mid-19th century. They purchased land near Tama City, adding to it over time, and have lived there ever since.
  • Illinois/Illini: Jean Baptiste Louis Franquelin, a French mapmaker, placed the Illinois on the upper Iowa River in 1688. Father Jacques Marquette encountered the tribe and the Moingwena near the mouth of the Des Moines River in 1673. By the time he returned, they had moved near Peoria, Illinois. The name Des Moines is derived from that of the Moingwena.
  • Ioway: The name "Iowa," or "Ayuwha," was borrowed from the Dakota and means "Sleepy-ones." The Ioway were of Sioux stock and related to the Otoe and Missouri tribes. They moved frequently in Iowa and Minnesota. Through treaties with the U.S. Government, they lost their lands in Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri. The Ioway practiced farming and lived in villages, though some bands adopted Plains Indian customs. In 1836, they were assigned a reservation along the Great Nemaha River in present-day Brown County, Kansas, and Richardson County, Nebraska.
  • Missouri: This tribe is said to have originated from the same stock as the Ioway and migrated with them and the Otoe to the Iowa River, where the Ioway remained while the others continued to the Missouri River.
  • Omaha: While the Omaha usually lived west of the Missouri River, they wandered in western Iowa for a time before moving to Nebraska.
  • Otoe: The Otoe were once part of the Siouan tribes of the Great Lakes region, commonly known as the Winnebago. They migrated southwest and were located north of the Missouri River and west of the Mississippi River in present-day northern Missouri and Iowa.
  • Ottawa: Representatives of this tribe were party to a treaty made in 1846, ceding Iowa lands to the United States.
  • Ponca: The Ponca accompanied the Omaha while they were in western Iowa.
  • Potawatomi: The Prairie Potawatomi settled in western Iowa before removing to Kansas. They ceded their lands in 1846.
  • Sac: The Sac moved into Iowa and then to Kansas in 1842.
  • Winnebago: In 1840, this tribe was relocated to the Neutral Ground in Iowa, assigned to them by a treaty of September 15, 1832. They were later removed to Minnesota in 1848.

The history of Iowa is inextricably linked to the diverse Native American tribes who shaped its landscape and culture for centuries. Their stories, from the enigmatic Mound Builders to the more recent conflicts between the Sioux and Algonquin tribes, provide valuable insights into the human experience and the enduring legacy of the First Peoples of Iowa.