Patent Medicine & the Popular Medicine Show
The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed a surge in the popularity of what became known as "patent medicine." These concoctions, often peddled by traveling salespeople in elaborate "medicine shows," promised relief from a vast array of aches, ailments, and diseases. Characterized by their colorful names and even more flamboyant claims, these remedies held a prominent place in the health landscape of the era. Despite the implication of innovation suggested by the term "patent medicine," these elixirs and tonics were rarely formally patented. Instead, many were protected by trademarks, a legal distinction that safeguarded the brand name rather than the chemical composition. Chemical patents, which would have protected the formulas themselves, were not widely utilized in the United States until 1925.
These remedies, sometimes referred to as "proprietary medicines," had their roots in England. There, they were manufactured under grants, or "patents of royal favor," bestowed upon those who supplied medicines to the Royal Family, thus giving rise to the name. During the 18th century, these medicines began to cross the Atlantic, finding their way into the hands of American consumers. They were sold through a variety of channels, including grocers, goldsmiths, drugstores, and even postmasters, highlighting the pervasive nature of their distribution.
Patent medicine flourished in the United States from its inception, and by the mid-19th century, its manufacture had blossomed into a significant industry. From large corporations to small, family-run businesses, producers offered remedies for nearly every conceivable ailment. Cures were advertised for venereal diseases, tuberculosis, infant colic, digestive problems, "female complaints," and even cancer. These remedies were openly sold to the public through retail stores, individual salesmen traversing the countryside, and the increasingly popular traveling medicine shows.
The promotion of patent medicine was a pivotal force in the nascent advertising industry. The sellers of these remedies pioneered numerous advertising and sales techniques that are still recognizable today. A common tactic was to tout the presence of exotic ingredients, even when the actual therapeutic effects, if any, stemmed from more commonplace drugs. "Branding" became a critical element in distinguishing one medicine from its countless competitors, fostering brand loyalty and recognition. Although many patent medicine products were sold at premium prices, their ingredients were often inexpensive. Pharmacists, possessing the knowledge to decipher the composition of these remedies, frequently manufactured similar products and sold them at lower prices. To combat this competition, branded medicine advertisements urged the public to reject any substitutes, reinforcing the perception of unique efficacy.
One particularly prevalent category of patent medicine consisted of liniments and ointments, many of which claimed to contain snake oil, a substance believed at the time to possess remarkable curative properties. The widespread promotion of snake oil, however, ultimately led to the enduring term "snake oil salesman," a synonym for a charlatan or con artist.
Despite their popularity, many of these medicines contained alarmingly high doses of substances like alcohol, morphine, opium, or cocaine. Shockingly, some were even marketed for babies and children, often with tragic consequences. The lack of regulation surrounding their ingredients, which were frequently kept secret, led to increasing concerns about their safety and efficacy. Dubbed "quack" medicines, these concoctions were often of questionable benefit. Lydia Pinkham’s Women’s Tonic, for example, contained 19% alcohol; Dr. Kilmer’s Swamp Root, 12%; and Hostetter’s Bitters, a staggering 32%.
From the outset, physicians and medical societies expressed strong disapproval of patent medicine, arguing that they did not cure illnesses, dissuaded the sick from seeking legitimate medical care, and contributed to alcohol and drug dependency. The temperance movement of the late 19th century added its voice to the criticism, vehemently protesting the use of alcohol in these products.
In response to these criticisms, manufacturers established "The Proprietary Association" in 1881, a trade group designed to protect their interests. Aided by the press, which had become reliant on revenue from remedy advertising, the association fiercely resisted any attempts at regulation. Ultimately, however, the growing demand for consumer safety proved too strong to overcome. In 1906, the Pure Food and Drug Act was enacted, requiring manufacturers to list their ingredients on packaging labels and prohibiting misleading advertising. Subsequent legislation in 1938 mandated that manufacturers test their products for safety before marketing them, and in 1962, tests for effectiveness were also required.
While many patent medicine products were nothing more than elaborate hoaxes, a few legitimate remedies did deliver on their promises. Listerine, developed in 1879, Bayer Aspirin in 1899, Milk of Magnesia in 1880, Ex-Lax in 1905, and Richardson’s Croup and Pneumonia Cure Salve in the 1890s (now known as Vick’s VapoRub) are examples of products that emerged from this era and continue to be used today.
Medicine Shows:
One of the most effective and entertaining methods of promoting these patent medicine products was the "Medicine Show." These events often resembled small traveling circuses, featuring vaudeville-style entertainment, "Muscle Man" acts, magic tricks, and themes drawn from Native American and Wild West imagery. The origins of these shows can be traced back to traveling charlatans in 14th century Europe, who, lacking the support of established circuses and theaters, relied on marketplaces and patrons for their livelihood. Later, patent medicine vendors set up booths at local fairs in Colonial America, but their excesses led to the passage of restrictive laws as early as 1773. By the late 19th century, Medicine Shows flourished in the United States, particularly in the Midwest and the rural South.
At the heart of the Medicine Show was the "Medicine Man," often referred to as "Professor" or "Doctor," though he was typically neither. Instead, he was a skilled showman and storyteller, capable of captivating an audience. The "Professor" served as the central figure, surrounded by entertainers whose performances were designed to draw a crowd of potential customers. These captivated audiences would then be more receptive to the "miracle elixirs" offered by the "doctor."
The arrival of a Medicine Show in a town was often preceded by extensive publicity, including posters and banners announcing the time and location of the event, as well as tickets of admission. Some "shows" were large enough to warrant booking halls or hotels for the troupes of entertainers, who might perform several times throughout the day and evening. More often, however, the shows were held directly on the street, with the goal of attracting every passerby. The remedies and elixirs being sold were frequently manufactured and bottled within the same wagon that transported the show from town to town.
Between entertainment acts, the "Professor" would lecture the crowd about his miraculous elixir, weaving grandiose claims with engaging anecdotes and stories. The audience was often encouraged to participate by singing along with the entertainers. "Muscle man" acts were particularly popular, showcasing the strength and vigor supposedly derived from a particular potion. During these presentations, the "Professor" would frequently employ shills, who would step forward from the crowd and offer "unsolicited" testimonials about the medicine’s benefits. Other "plants" within the audience, perhaps feigning an affliction such as a limp, would challenge the "Medicine Man" and his claims. In a staged moment, the "Professor" would administer a teaspoon of his "magical elixir," and the rube would be miraculously cured. Though many in the audience likely recognized the theatrics, they were often willing to suspend their disbelief, hoping that this particular cure might actually work.
In addition to the small, "Mom and Pop" operations that traveled through small towns and rural areas with their "Medicine Wagons," several large manufacturers presented "Medicine Shows" on a grander scale. The most well-known of these was the Kickapoo Indian Medicine Company. Headquartered in New Haven, Connecticut, far removed from the Kickapoo tribe, who primarily resided on a reservation in Oklahoma, the company was founded by non-Native Americans John E. "Doc" Healy and Charles H. "Texas Charley" Bigelow. They dubbed their headquarters building "The Principal Wigwam," which served as both a factory and living quarters for employees, as well as housing offices for the two owners. In 1881, Doc Healy, who owned a brokerage house in Boston, conceived the idea of promoting medical elixirs using Indian names. The following year, he partnered with Charles Bigelow. Healy was responsible for hiring the performers – both Indians and white entertainers – who included jugglers, acrobats, dancers, musicians, fire-eaters, and more. Texas Charley managed the medicine side of the business, as well as the "Doctors" or "Professors" who delivered "Medical Lectures."
These two partners sent as many as 25 shows simultaneously across the country. During the shows, all the entertainers wore flamboyant costumes, with the Native Americans adorned in feathers and colored beads and often carrying crude weapons. The "Professors" typically wore tuxedo-style jackets, high silk hats, and clothing embellished with gold-studded buttons, glitter, silk, fringe, and other adornments.
According to the advertisements and the "professors," the medicines sold were "compounded according to secret ancient Kickapoo Indian tribal formulas." In reality, the ingredients often included herbs used by Native Americans, such as bloodroot, feverwort, poke, slippery elm, oak bark, and other natural products. Selling for 50 cents to a dollar per bottle, these medicines were guaranteed to cure all manner of ailments.
Company shows featured Native American-style entertainment, including horseback riding, Pow Wows, dances, and invocations to various spirits in darkened tents. One popular product was Kickapoo Indian Sagwa, which was touted as a Blood, Liver, and Stomach Regulator. While advertised as being based on a Native American Herbal Remedy, it was, in actuality, a mixture of alcohol, stale beer, and a strong laxative such as aloe. The Kickapoo Indian Sagwa would later inspire Al Capp’s "Kickapoo Joy Juice," featured in the comic strip "Li’l Abner." The company also sold several other patent medicine products, such as Kickapoo Indian Oil, Kickapoo Cough Cure, and Kickapoo Worm Remedy, all claiming their basis in Indian herbal medicine. The advantage of claiming traditional native origins was that disproving the claims was nearly impossible.
One of the most popular performers in the Kickapoo Indian Medicine Show was a man named Dr. John Johnson. Although he looked, acted, and possessed the knowledge of an Indian Medicine Man, he was not of Indian heritage. However, for more than 20 years, he believed that he was.
In actuality, he was kidnapped from Saco, Maine’s Factory Island, by Mi’kmaq Indians from Nova Scotia in 1834 when he was just five years old. Raised to believe he was a member of the tribe, he learned traditional Indian medical practices and was regarded among the Indians as a Medicine Man. Later, he was reunited with his family and studied with several American doctors. He was also regarded as a physician by the white people. Dr. Johnson would appear in many of the company’s shows.
In addition to the company’s many shows and performers, they also published various books and pamphlets to promote their products independently. These publications, which covered Indian life and lore, included the Encyclopedia of Valuable Information, a 32-page pamphlet published in 1894; Life and Scenes among the Kickapoo Indians, a 176-page illustrated book published in 1900; and the Kickapoo Doctor, a 32-page pamphlet published in 1890.
The Kickapoo Indian Medicine Show continued into the 1920s, when its white owners sold out for almost a half-million dollars. However, other medicine shows continued for the next two decades.
The last of these traveling shows was the Hadacol Caravan, which marketed a tonic called "Hadacol," known for its alleged curative powers and its high alcohol content. Primarily making appearances in the South, the show was known for its notable music acts and Hollywood celebrities. The Caravan suddenly stopped in 1951 when the Hadacol enterprise fell apart in a scandal.
Today, many medicines from the patent medicine era still survive, including Anacin/Anadin, Bayer Aspirin, Bromo-Seltzer Carter’s Little Pills, Doan’s Pills, Fletcher’s Castoria, Geritol, and others. A number of products that once made medicinal claims and were once marketed as patent medicine are still on the market, though their ingredients have changed. These include 7-Up, Angostura Bitters, Coca-Cola, and Tonic Water.