Riot in Rock Springs Leads to Massacre
September 2, 1885, marks a grim chapter in the history of Wyoming Territory and a stark reminder of the challenges faced by marginalized communities in the United States. On this day, the town of Rock Springs became the stage for a horrific act of violence that resulted in the deaths of at least 28, and possibly as many as 50, Chinese immigrants. Over seventy-five homes were razed, leaving a trail of destruction and devastation. This tragic event, etched in history as the Riot in Rock Springs Leads to Massacre, serves as a chilling example of racial prejudice and the consequences of unchecked animosity.
The roots of the Riot in Rock Springs Leads to Massacre are deeply intertwined with the complex socio-economic landscape of the late 19th century. The United States was grappling with the aftermath of the Civil War, and economic anxieties were pervasive. This period witnessed a surge in anti-immigrant sentiment, fueled by fears of job competition and cultural differences. Chinese immigrants, in particular, became scapegoats for the economic woes of the time.
The seeds of discord that ultimately blossomed into the Riot in Rock Springs Leads to Massacre were sown years before the event itself. The late 1800s were marked by growing anti-Chinese sentiment across the nation. This hostility culminated in the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, a landmark piece of legislation that severely restricted Chinese immigration to the United States. Signed into law by President Chester A. Arthur, this act represented a significant departure from the nation’s open immigration policies and stands as a testament to the prevailing prejudice of the era. Initially intended to last for ten years, the act was repeatedly renewed and eventually made permanent before its repeal in 1943, illustrating the deep-seated nature of anti-Chinese bias.
The animosity towards Chinese immigrants had been simmering for years, gaining momentum after the Civil War. The economic downturn of the 1870s exacerbated existing tensions, as competition for jobs and resources intensified. Chinese immigrants, many of whom had fled famine and political turmoil in their homeland, were increasingly targeted. Initially drawn to California by the allure of gold, they were often forced out of the mines and relegated to low-paying jobs in sectors like restaurants and laundries. As the post-war economy faltered, labor leaders and politicians, like California Governor John Bigler, capitalized on the prevailing anxieties, blaming Chinese laborers for depressed wages and fueling further discrimination. Despite California’s attempt to ban Chinese and Mongolian individuals in 1858, the State Supreme Court overturned the law in 1862. As the population grew, violence against Chinese immigrants became more and more common in California cities.
By the late 1870s, the anti-Chinese sentiment had reached the halls of Congress. In 1878, legislation aimed at excluding Chinese immigrants was passed but vetoed by President Rutherford B. Hayes. However, the political climate shifted, and in 1882, President Chester A. Arthur signed the Chinese Exclusion Act into law. Meanwhile, in Wyoming Territory, many Chinese immigrants found employment with the Union Pacific Railroad, working on the railways and in the coal mines. The Knights of Labor, a prominent labor organization, established a chapter in Rock Springs in 1883 and echoed the sentiments of their counterparts in California, accusing Chinese laborers of driving down wages. This set the stage for the tragic events that would unfold in the Riot in Rock Springs Leads to Massacre.
Newspaper accounts from that day in September 1885 spoke of escalating tensions and suggested that labor organizers were planning a general strike to create a crisis. However, the violent turn of events was reportedly not part of their plan. The animosity stemmed from the Union Pacific Railroad’s practice of paying Chinese miners lower wages, which white miners in Rock Springs believed deprived them of fair compensation. A decade prior, a strike against Union Pacific had prompted the company to replace striking workers, primarily of Cornish, Irish, Swedish, and Welsh descent, with Chinese strikebreakers. Following the strike, the company employed only 50 white miners compared to 150 Chinese immigrants.
By 1885, the demographics in Rock Springs consisted of 150 white miners and over 300 Chinese miners. During that summer, many white miners were unemployed, while the Union Pacific Railroad continued to recruit Chinese laborers. In August, notices demanding the expulsion of the Chinese were posted from Evanston to Rock Springs. On the night of September 1, white miners held a meeting. The following morning, a dispute erupted between ten white miners and Chinese laborers in the mine, resulting in severe injuries to two Chinese miners, one of whom later died. The white miners then initiated a strike against the company. As more white miners gathered in town for a Knights of Labor meeting, the mob began to take shape.
While some white miners chose to frequent the saloons, a Union Pacific official, anticipating trouble, persuaded the saloons and grocers to close early in the afternoon. Around that time, the armed mob of white miners moved toward Chinatown with the intention of expelling all Chinese immigrants from the town. They granted the Chinese immigrants an hour to leave, and the Chinese, in a state of panic, agreed. However, the mob grew impatient, and believing that the Chinese were preparing to defend themselves, they began to advance on them with gunfire and shouting.
The Riot in Rock Springs Leads to Massacre was described in an 1886 article by the Franklin Press:
"Without offering any resistance, the Chinamen snatched up whatever they could lay their hands on and started east on the run. Some were bareheaded and barefooted; others carried a small bundle in a handkerchief, while a number had rolls of bedding. They fled like a flock of frightened sheep, scrambling and tumbling down the steep banks of Bitter Creek, then through the sagebrush, and over the railroad, and up into the hills east of Burning Mountain. Some of the men were engaged in searching the houses and driving out the stray Chinamen who were in hiding, while others followed up the retreating Chinamen, encouraging their flight with showers of bullets fired over their heads… Soon a black smoke was seen issuing from the peak of a house in ‘Hong Kong,’ than from another, and very soon eight or ten of the largest of the houses were in flames. Half choked with fire and smoke, numbers of Chinamen came rushing from the burning buildings, and, with blankets and bedquilts over their heads to protect themselves from stray rifle shots, they followed their retreating brothers into the hills at the top of their speed."
Chinese immigrants who witnessed the event recounted their horrifying experiences to the Chinese consulate in New York City.
"Whenever the mob met a Chinese, they stopped him and, pointing a weapon at him, asked him if he had any revolver, and then approaching him they searched his person, robbing him of his watch or any gold or silver that he might have about him, before letting him go. Some of the rioters would let a Chinese go after depriving him of all his gold and silver, while another Chinese would be beaten with the butt ends of the weapons before being let go. Some of the rioters, when they could not stop a Chinese, would shoot him dead on the spot, and then search and rob him. Some would overtake a Chinese, throw him down and search and rob him before they would let him go. Some of the rioters would not fire their weapons but would only use the butt ends to beat the Chinese with. Some would not beat a Chinese but rob him of whatever he had and let him go, yelling to him to go quickly. Some, who took no part either in beating or robbing the Chinese, stood by, shouting loudly and laughing and clapping their hands."
The riot persisted into the night, with the mob demanding that certain Union Pacific mine managers and anyone perceived as "helping the Chinese" leave town. Sheriff Joe Young arrived from Green River that evening, and guards were deployed throughout the night to protect the property of Rock Springs citizens. However, Chinatown continued to burn, and "all the night long the sound of rifle and revolver was heard, and the surrounding hills were lit by the glare of the burning houses."
The aftermath of the Riot in Rock Springs Leads to Massacre revealed the full extent of the tragedy. Bodies were discovered burned in the ashes of homes and shot dead in the hills as they attempted to escape. Wyoming Territorial Governor Francis Warren telegraphed President Grover Cleveland on September 4, describing the situation.
"Unlawful combinations and conspiracies exist among coal miners and others, in the Uintah and Sweetwater Counties in this Territory, which prevents individuals and corporations from enjoyment and protection of their property and obstruct execution of laws. Open insurrection at Rock Springs; property burned; sixteen dead bodies found; probably over fifty more under ruins. Seven hundred Chinamen driven from town, and have taken refuge at Evanston and are ordered to leave there. Sheriff powerless to make necessary arrests and protect life and property unless supported by organized bodies of armed men. Wyoming has no territorial militia; therefore I respectfully and earnestly request the aid of United States troops, not only to protect the mail and mail-routes but that they may be instructed to support civil authorities until order is restored, criminals arrested, and the suffering relieved."
Under orders from the War Department, General Howard dispatched four companies of troops to Rock Springs and Evanston. By September 5, approximately 80 troops were stationed in each town, tasked with protecting the United States mail. Meanwhile, the striking white miners continued to prevent Union Pacific from operating in Rock Springs and the Almy mines near Evanston. On September 7, the Chinese were warned not to enter the mines at Almy, or they would be shot. Consequently, the mines at Almy were closed.
While some newspapers, including the local Rock Springs newspaper, defended the riot to some extent, the majority of Wyoming newspapers condemned the massacre while supporting the cause of the white miners, placing blame on Union Pacific and its employment practices. By mid-September, the situation in Rock Springs began to stabilize, and many of the Chinese survivors, still employed by the coal mines, were escorted back. However, the white workers continued their strike. The Knights of Labor distanced themselves from the ongoing strike in Rock Springs to avoid being seen as condoning the violence. It was later emphasized that the Knights of Labor organization was not involved in the massacre and that only some of its members took part.
When the Union Pacific Coal Department reopened the mines, they fired 45 white miners for their involvement in the violence. However, justice beyond that was not served. Although 16 men were arrested, a Sweetwater County grand jury declined to issue indictments, stating that "no one has been able to testify to a single criminal act committed by any known white person that day."
The Riot in Rock Springs Leads to Massacre exacerbated tensions between the United States and the Chinese government. A Chinese official suggested that Americans in China could become targets of retaliation for the events in Rock Springs. The rising anti-American sentiment in Hong Kong raised concerns that the backlash could harm U.S. trade with China. As a result, the U.S. government agreed to provide compensation for the property damage, but not for the victims themselves. Secretary of State Thomas Bayard, in collaboration with Congress, presented the compensation as a monetary gift, not as an admission of legal responsibility. Bayard also conveyed to Chinese officials in Washington that the Chinese laborers’ resistance to cultural assimilation had contributed to the tensions, echoing the prevalent view that racism against Chinese people was more common among other immigrants than among the majority of Americans.
The Riot in Rock Springs Leads to Massacre was followed by additional incidents of anti-Chinese violence in Washington Territory, Oregon, and other states. Historians consider it the most significant and egregious example of anti-Chinese violence in the United States during the 19th century. Federal troops remained stationed outside Rock Springs at Camp Pilot Butte until the camp’s closure in 1898.