The Invasion of Oklahoma
By James Cox in 1903
Oklahoma, a territory brimming with promise and potential, stood as the youngest addition to the expanding United States at the turn of the 20th century. Often mistaken for its neighbor, the Indian Territory, Oklahoma maintained its distinct identity, governed by a formal territorial structure. In contrast, the Indian Territory navigated a complex legal landscape, its laws and enforcement mechanisms unique and often perplexing.
Within a short span, Oklahoma had transitioned from being an integral part of the broader "Indian Territory" to an independent entity, carving out its own destiny from its original parent territory. This separation marked a significant turning point in the region’s history.
Encompassing nearly 40,000 square miles, the territory boasted a population of approximately a quarter of a million, excluding around 18,000 Native Americans. This density surpassed that of many Western states and territories, reflecting Oklahoma’s rapid growth and attractiveness to settlers. The territory thrived with extraordinary prosperity, a remarkable feat considering its recent establishment. The fertile lands of The Invasion of Oklahoma held incredible opportunities for those willing to work hard and build a new life.
As of 1888, Oklahoma represented the largest continuous stretch of undeveloped, cultivable land in the Southwest. Though nominally managed by Indian tribes, the soil’s inherent richness and the vastness of the land fostered a culture of idleness, leading to a regrettable waste of its agricultural potential. Bordered by the prosperous and powerful states of Texas to the south and Kansas to the north, the presence of the Indian Territory disrupted the natural expansion and development of the region.
From the windows of passing trains, the land presented an inviting panorama. Reports from traders confirmed its immense agricultural wealth, further fueling the desires of land-hungry individuals. The dream of claiming a piece of this fertile land became a powerful motivator.
Thus began the era of the "boomer," a relentless force that persisted until it successfully pried open a vast area in the heart of the prairie wilderness for settlement. When the initial opportunity arose, some believed the available land would exceed the demand. However, this proved false. Every acre, regardless of its quality, was swiftly claimed, and a chorus of voices, echoing Oliver Twist’s plea, clamored for more. Subsequently, the Ioway and Potawatomi reservations were put on the market, vanishing within a single day, prompting further agitation from the insatiable crowd. This resulted in a third "bargain-counter sale," opening the extensive Cheyenne and Arapaho lands for settlement. Immigrants flooded in, and every arable quarter-section soon found its individual occupant and owner. The history of The Invasion of Oklahoma is a testament to the determination of these settlers.
Yet, along the southern border of Kansas, a multitude of landless and homeless individuals remained camped, their gazes fixed longingly upon the fertile prairies of the Cherokee Strip. They stoked the embers of their campfires with unwavering resolve, dispatching repeated requests to Washington, D.C., seeking an opportunity to enter the land. Eventually, Congress heeded their pleas, alleviating the congestion in the fall of 1893.
The scenes that unfolded during the wild scramble from all sides of the Strip are etched in history, requiring no further elaboration. Five million acres were swiftly seized by 30,000 eager farmers.
The adage that a person who makes two blades of grass grow where one grew before is a public benefactor aptly describes the pioneers who settled Oklahoma. These resilient individuals braved hardship and ridicule to establish a foothold in this promised land, transforming the region’s landscape within a mere five or six years. The proportion of cultivated land in this young territory demonstrated its remarkable vitality, showcasing an unparalleled commitment to land economy and a rapid utilization of nature’s abundant resources. The story of The Invasion of Oklahoma is a story of hard work and transformation.
Truth often surpasses fiction, and the narrative of the invasion of Oklahoma reads like a captivating romance. Many lives were lost in the endeavor, some through violence and others succumbing to diseases brought on by hardship. The events surrounding The Invasion of Oklahoma shaped the state forever.
Many of the individuals who spearheaded the movement to open Oklahoma for settlement by white citizens are still alive, some of whom have realized their long-held dreams and now reside in modest homes built in their preferred corners of the land they once coveted so dearly.
Oklahoma came into the possession of the Seminole Indians through established channels and remained their designated home until approximately thirty years prior. In 1866, the territory was ceded to the United States government in exchange for compensation, and in 1873, federal officers surveyed the land, establishing section lines in accordance with the law.
It was naturally assumed that this expenditure was undertaken with the intention of promptly opening the territory for settlement. However, due to various reasons, some valid and others influenced by potential corruption, the actual opening of the territory was delayed for over twenty years after its cession to the United States government. During this interim, Oklahoma existed in a peculiar state. Vast herds of cattle grazed upon its lands, and outlaws and fugitives from various parts of the country, reminiscent of biblical cities of refuge, squatted upon it, subsisting on hunting, rudimentary agriculture, and enjoying freedom from legal intervention.
Captain Payne and a group of determined individuals formed colonies to rectify this anomaly and secure homes for themselves and their families in what was reputed to be one of the most fertile regions in the world. A persistent yearning for new land has always existed, driving many to seek out and settle previously unknown and unopened territories. While some who joined Payne’s movement were undoubtedly driven by this roving spirit, the majority were genuine home-seekers who believed that, as citizens of the country, they had a right to claim quarter-sections in the promised land and were determined to assert those rights.
Regardless of the motives of the "boomers," as they were known from the outset, they approached the task in a methodical manner, planning a formal invasion and organizing several colonies or small armies for the purpose.
To illustrate the extraordinary challenges they faced and the vastness of the unknown, we will follow the experiences of one such colony. Caldwell, Kansas, situated along the southern border of Kansas, served as the staging ground for the first colonists. The group consisted of approximately 40 men and 100 women and children. Each family equipped themselves with the necessary provisions and conveniences to the best of their limited means. A prairie schooner, or a wagon with a covering to shield the occupants from the elements and provide a degree of privacy for the women and children, was an essential component.
As the colony embarked on its journey, it presented a remarkable spectacle. The wagons advanced in single file, with a few men riding on horseback, acting as advance scouts to identify suitable campsites and protect the wagon’s occupants from potential threats. In some instances, one or two cows were tethered to the rear of the wagons, and several dogs enthusiastically joined in the adventure. An atmosphere of unwavering confidence prevailed, and hearty cheers erupted as the cavalcade crossed the Kansas state line, commencing its long and arduous march through the rich bluegrass of the Cherokee Strip.
The home-seekers faced a journey of approximately 100 miles, a long and arduous task given the slow pace they were forced to maintain. While some women experienced moments of nervousness, the majority embraced the prevailing spirit and displayed enthusiasm. They carried sufficient food for their immediate needs, and upon camping for the night, the younger members of the group typically supplemented their provisions through hunting and fishing.
Similar to invading armies that are allowed to advance unmolested, only to face increased resistance upon reaching the enemy’s camp, the colonists encountered minimal difficulties initially. No one bothered to impede their progress. Individuals who had previously ventured into the promised land identified a suitable location for the proposed colony, and the people were directed there. One member of the group possessed knowledge of land laws and, after an extensive search, located one of the section corners established by the recent government survey. Once this was accomplished, each newcomer selected a quarter-section, and work commenced with zeal. Tents and huts were erected as quickly as possible, and within a week, the newcomers were relatively well-settled. They even designated a townsite and constructed elaborate castles in the air.
They reigned supreme over their domain, and for several weeks, their right to be there remained unchallenged. However, cowboys herding cattle in the vicinity gradually began to hint at possible interference. While these suggestions were being discussed, United States troops unexpectedly arrived. With little explanation, they arrested every man in the colony for treason and conspiracy, proceeding to drive the colonists out of the country.
The men were compelled to hitch up their horses, and succumbing to the overwhelming force, the colonists sadly and wearily made their way to Fort Reno, where they were handed over to the authorities. After being detained for five days, they were released and instructed to return to Kansas as quickly as possible. Government officials ensured that the order was followed, leaving the colonists to their own devices.
The men promptly resolved to organize a second attempt to establish homes for their families, embarking on the march once more. A bitter disappointment awaited them, as they discovered that their cabins had been destroyed, forcing them to start anew. This they did, and they had barely settled in when another small detachment of troops arrived to evict them. The men were bound with ropes to the tail-ends of wagons and driven like cattle across the prairie to the military fort. For the third time, they launched an invasion, and for the third time, they were confronted by government troops.
However, during the intervening period, a spirit of determination had taken hold of the men, and they attempted to resist the soldiers’ onslaught. The lieutenant in charge was taken aback by their stance and hesitated to order his men to fire. Many of the colonists were well-armed and undoubtedly skilled marksmen. Consequently, he adopted a more diplomatic approach and, by establishing somewhat friendly relations, drew closer to the settlers. A rough-and-tumble fistfight ensued, and the settlers’ hard fists and brawny arms proved too much for the regulars, who were temporarily driven off.
The boomers’ victory prompted the dispatch of 600 soldiers to dislodge them, a force that was impossible to resist. The colonists yielded with as much grace as possible and reluctantly abandoned the homes they had struggled so hard to build. Some of the men were imprisoned for their actions, and the colony was temporarily disbanded. Several others followed suit, leading to a conflict that was not particularly commendable to the government and persisted for several years. No law could be found to punish the boomers and end the invasions. All that could be done was to drive the families out as fast as they came in, a course of action that was more likely to incite disorder than quell it.
At times, the soldiers displayed considerable forbearance, even going out of their way to assist the women and children and minimize their suffering. At other times, they were unduly harsh, and the evictions resulted in the deaths of several infants due to exposure. The soldiers themselves did not relish the task, many complaining bitterly that fighting women and babies was not part of their duty. Nevertheless, they were compelled to obey orders without question.
While the original colonists, or boomers, gained little or nothing for themselves through the hardships they endured, their efforts ultimately led to the opening of Oklahoma for settlement. Around 1885, it became generally understood that the necessary proclamation would be issued. Home-seekers from across the country began their journeys, ranging in length from a few hundred to several thousand miles. The Kansas border towns to the south became the headquarters for these individuals, who were astonished to find that others had arrived before them. In the vicinity of Arkansas City, in particular, large settlements of boomers emerged, periodically attempting to enter the promised land in advance of the proclamation, only to be turned back by the soldiers guarding every trail. The majority of newcomers deemed it best to abide by the law. With their wagons serving as their homes, they settled down and sought work to support their families until the proclamation was issued and the country was opened to them.
The wait was long and arduous. The children attended school, the men secured whatever employment they could find, and life proceeded peacefully in some of the most unusual settlements ever witnessed in the country. Finally, the Springer Bill was passed, ensuring the imminent opening of at least a portion of Oklahoma. The news was telegraphed far and wide, and the number of boomers swelled exponentially. In the winter of 1888, estimates of the number of people awaiting the President’s proclamation ranged from 50,000 to 60,000. Eventually, the long-awaited document was released, and Easter Monday, April 22, 1889, was designated as the date on which the section of Oklahoma included in the bill would be declared open. A special provision stipulated that anyone entering the promised and mysterious land before noon on that day would be permanently disqualified from holding land within it. Consequently, the opening transformed into a race, commencing promptly at high noon on the specified day.
Seldom has such an extraordinary race been witnessed anywhere in the world. The primary townsites were located along the Santa Fe Railroad, and those seeking town lots crowded the trains, which were prohibited from entering Oklahoma until noon. All available rolling stock was pressed into service, accommodating thousands of home-seekers bound for the towns of Guthrie and Oklahoma City, as well as intermediate points. Before daybreak on the morning of the opening, the approaches to the railway station at Arkansas City were congested with masses of humanity, and every train teemed with town boomers and individuals searching for free land or town lots.
The author secured a seat on the first train to cross the Oklahoma border, arriving in Guthrie before 1 o’clock on the opening day. It was assumed that the law had been enforced and that only a land office and a few officials would be found on the townsite.
However, the reality was far different. Hundreds of people were already on the ground. The town had been platted, streets laid out, and the best corners seized in advance of the law and the proclamation regulations.
There was no time to argue matters of law or order. Those who had circumvented the law were determined, and their sheer numbers emboldened them to evade detection amidst the chaos. One of them recounted an interesting story to the writer about his experience. He had slipped into Oklahoma before the opening, carrying enough food for a few days. He found refuge in a creek bank, remaining hidden until just minutes before noon on opening day. When his watch and the sun indicated that noon was imminent, he emerged from his hiding place to leisurely secure one of the best corner lots in town. To his dismay, he witnessed people advancing from every direction, realizing that his idea was not unique and had been adopted simultaneously by hundreds of others. He managed to secure a good lot for himself and sold it before his disqualification for being too "previous" in his entry was discovered.
As each train unloaded its immense crowds of passengers, the scene defied description. The townsite was situated on elevated ground, and men and even women leaped from the moving trains, tumbling over each other and then scrambling uphill as quickly as their legs could carry them in a frantic race for free town lots. The entire townsite was occupied within half an hour, and the surrounding countryside in every direction was appropriated for additions to the main "city." By nightfall, at least 10,000 people were on the ground, with some estimates placing the number as high as 20,000.
Some brought blankets and provisions, enjoying a comparatively comfortable night. Thousands, however, had no choice but to sleep on the open prairie, hungry and thirsty. The water in the creek was barely potable, and the railroad company had to protect its water tank by force from the parched adventurers and speculators.
The night brought additional terrors. There was no threat from wild animals or snakes, as the stampede of the previous day had likely driven every living creature miles away, with the exception of ants, which attacked the trespassers in armies of tens of thousands. By morning, several houses had been erected, and the arrival of freight trains laden with provisions enabled resourceful caterers to amass small fortunes, alleviating much of the distress experienced by the newcomers. The streets were well-defined within a week, and houses were being built in every direction. Several brick buildings were erected and occupied for business and banking purposes within six months.
The pace of development was unprecedented, and Guthrie, like its southern counterpart, Oklahoma City, is today a large, thriving business and financial hub. Those who traversed Oklahoma by rail as recently as the winter of 1888 would recall seeing nothing but open prairie with occasional patches of timber. There was not even a post to mark the location of either of these two large cities, nor was there a plow line to define their boundaries.
No other country in the world could have achieved such results. The courage required to invest time and money in a prospective town in a country previously closed to white citizens was immense, a venture that only an American, born and bred, would undertake.
Oklahoma cities are not simply boom towns laid out on paper and advertised as future railroad and business centers; they have been practical, functional trading centers from their inception. Every aspect of their growth has been permanent and enduring.
While the race to the Oklahoma townsites was captivating, the race to the homesteads was even more sensational and bewildering. Around the coveted land, anxious and determined men awaited the word "Go" to rush forward and claim their future homes. In some cases, the race was conducted in wagons, while in others, a solitary horseman acted as a pioneer, galloping ahead to secure prior claim to a coveted, well-watered quarter-section. Shortly before noon, several boomers on the northern frontier attempted to advance despite the protests of the soldiers on guard. The soldiers were outnumbered ten to one and could not physically restrain the home-seekers. Recognizing this, the young lieutenant in charge addressed a few pointed remarks to the would-be lawbreakers. He knew many of the men personally and was aware that several were veterans. Appealing to their patriotism, he questioned whether it was logical for men who had borne arms for their country to conspire to violate the laws they had risked their lives to uphold. This appeal to the veterans’ loyalty had the desired effect, averting what threatened to be a dangerous confrontation and resulting in a series of heartfelt handshakes.
A mighty shout erupted at noon, and the deer, rabbits, and birds that had held undisputed dominion over the promised land for years were treated to a surprise of the first magnitude. Horses that had never been asked to run before were now compelled to adopt a gait previously unknown to them. Wagons overturned, horses collapsed, and numerous accidents occurred. One man, who had set his heart on settling along the Canadian River near the Old Payne Colony, urged his horse onward until it could barely stand. Finally, he reached one of the creeks flowing into the river. The exhausted animal managed to pull its rider up the steep bank of the creek before collapsing and dying. Its rider had no time for grief. He still had four or five miles to go, and he began to run as fast as his legs would carry him. His overestimation of his horse’s endurance and his underestimation of the distance cost him his coveted home, as a large colony had arrived from the western border ahead of him, resulting in multiple claimants for every homestead.
In other instances, neck-and-neck races ensued for favored locations, and it would have puzzled even an experienced referee to determine the winner. Compromises were occasionally reached, and while there was considerable ill-temper and recrimination, there was minimal violence. The men whose patience had been severely tested behaved admirably, earning the respect of the soldiers on guard to maintain order. The excitement and uproar continued long after nightfall. Driven by their feverish desire to retain possession of the homes for which they had waited and raced, hundreds of men stayed up all night, continuing the work of hut construction, knowing that evidence of improvements would greatly bolster their claims for a title. They persevered day after day, and despite the lateness of the season, many of the newcomers managed to raise a respectable crop that year.
The opening of other sections of the old Indian Territory, now part of Oklahoma, occurred two or three years later, with scenes mirroring those described above. Today, Oklahoma extends all the way to the southern Kansas line, and the Cherokee Strip, where hundreds of thousands of cattle had been fattened on its rich bluegrass, is now a settled land, with at least four families per square mile and several thriving towns and even large cities. The question of statehood for the youngest of our territories is currently under active debate. There is no dispute that its population and wealth are sufficient to warrant such a step. The only point of contention is whether the entirety of the Indian Territory should be included in the new state or whether the lands of the so-called civilized tribes should be excluded.
The lawlessness that has plagued some parts of the Indian Territory provides a strong argument in favor of opening all lands for settlement. The Indians own vast tracts of land under highly peculiar conditions. Many white men, some respectable citizens and others outlaws and fugitives from justice, have married Cherokee, Choctaw, and Creek women. While not recognized by the tribal leaders, these men can draw substantial sums of money from the government in their wives’ names, distributed periodically. Proponents of statehood favor the allotment of each Indian’s share of the land and the purchase of the vast remainder by the government, which could then be opened for settlement.
Some Indians have adopted the manners, dress, virtues, and vices of their white neighbors, generally abandoning their old names and adopting more conventional ones. However, many of the red men who adhere to tradition and resist innovation continue to use the names given to them in their boyhood. Thus, when traveling across the Indian Territory, one encounters Indians with names such as "Hears-Something-Everywhere," "Knows-Where-He-Walks," "Bear-in-the-Cloud," "Goose-Over-the-Hill," "Shell-on-the-Neck," "Sorrel Horse," "White Fox," "Strikes-on-the-Top-of-the-Head," and other equally outlandish terms and cognomens.
Everyone has heard of Chief Rain-in-the-Face, a quintessential Indian whose virtues and vices have been greatly exaggerated at times. A depiction is provided of this representative of a rapidly dwindling race and of the favored pony upon which he has ridden thousands of miles, a pony that possessed a remarkable level of endurance in its early years, a level that is difficult for those who have not resided in proximity to Indian settlements to fully comprehend.
James Cox, 1903. Compiled and edited by Kathy Alexander/Legends of America, updated November 2024. About the Author: The Invasion of Oklahoma, written by James Cox, was a chapter in his book My Native Land, published in 1903 and now in the public domain. Cox wrote several other books around this same time.
Also See:
El Reno – Home of the Land Rush
Historic People of Oklahoma
Oklahoma – Indian Territory
Oklahoma Photo Galleries