The Santa Fe Trade
By Helen Haines, 1891
The story of the American West is interwoven with tales of exploration, resilience, and burgeoning commerce. Among the most significant threads in this narrative is the Santa Fe Trade, a vibrant exchange of goods and cultures that connected the United States with the northern provinces of Mexico for several decades. This article delves into the origins, evolution, challenges, and ultimate impact of this vital trade route, painting a vivid picture of a bygone era.
The acquisition of Louisiana by the United States in 1803 dramatically altered the landscape of the Southwest, particularly for the then-isolated Spanish province of New Mexico. Prior to this pivotal moment, New Mexico existed in relative seclusion, shielded from significant external influence. The Louisiana Purchase effectively dismantled these long-standing barriers, paving the way for increased interaction and commerce. Within a decade, a dynamic, though fluctuating, trade relationship emerged between the burgeoning Western cities of the United States and the northern reaches of Mexico. This overland commerce, known as the Santa Fe Trade, didn’t arise from a carefully orchestrated plan but rather evolved organically, propelled by chance encounters and the entrepreneurial spirit of the era.
Its roots can be traced to the sporadic trading activities conducted by Spanish and American trappers with the indigenous populations. This initial, small-scale trade gradually expanded its reach, eventually transforming the distant cities of Santa Fe and Chihuahua into bustling markets for commodities originating from the eastern coast of the United States. In time, the Santa Fe Trade became a recognized and important component of American commerce, leaving an indelible mark on the region’s economic and cultural development.
The early chapters of the Santa Fe Trade are populated by intrepid individuals who dared to venture into the unknown. James Pursley, a Kentuckian, is often credited as the first American to set foot in New Mexican territory. However, it was Baptiste Lalande, a French Creole, who truly heralded the arrival of American commerce in Santa Fe. In 1804, Lalande was commissioned by William Morrison, a merchant from Kaskaskia, Illinois (then a remote frontier settlement near St. Louis, Missouri), to undertake a trading expedition. His mission was to navigate the Platte River, reach Santa Fe if possible, and assess the potential for commercial relations between the city and the United States. Equipped with goods for barter with Native American tribes, Lalande embarked on an arduous journey.
After traversing the rugged terrain and reaching the Rocky Mountains, Lalande dispatched a group of Native Americans to inform the Spanish authorities of his arrival. The Spanish responded swiftly, sending a mounted troop to escort Lalande and his goods to a settlement north of Taos, New Mexico. From Taos, Lalande continued his journey southward to Santa Fe, trading his merchandise along the way and exceeding even his most optimistic expectations in terms of profit. Captivated by the country, its people, and its commercial possibilities, Lalande abandoned his plans to return east. Using the funds provided by Morrison, he established himself in business in Santa Fe, neglecting to remit any payments or provide an accounting of his profits to his benefactor. Years later, Dr. John Robinson, a member of Zebulon Pike’s party, would travel to Santa Fe in an attempt to recover the debt owed to the merchant of Kaskaskia.
James Pursley’s arrival in New Mexico occurred in 1805. Pursley, originally from Baird’s Town, Kentucky, had departed St. Louis, Missouri, in 1803, accompanied by three companions. They traveled to the headwaters of the Osage River, engaging in trapping and trade with the local Native American tribes. After enduring numerous perilous adventures, which earned Pursley the moniker "The Mad American," the group’s canoe capsized at the confluence of the Osage and Missouri Rivers, resulting in the loss of their entire collection of furs. Rescuing their arms and ammunition, they were offered passage by a French trader traveling down the Missouri River to trade with the Mandan Indians. Pursley joined the trader and, in the spring, was sent on a trading expedition with a large contingent of Paducah and Kiowa Indians, accompanied by a small amount of merchandise.
The party was attacked by Sioux warriors and forced to retreat into the Colorado mountains. The large group, consisting of approximately 2,000 people and 10,000 animals, wandered along the headwaters of the Platte River. It was here that Pursley noticed signs of gold deposits and collected samples of the mineral. Believing that he would never return to a civilized area and considering the gold worthless in the wilderness, he eventually discarded the samples. After traveling along the Platte River, the Indians sent Pursley and several others to Santa Fe to seek permission from the Spanish authorities to enter the province and trade with the local population. Governor Alencaster granted their request, and the Indians returned for the rest of the group. After selling their merchandise at profitable prices, they prepared to return east. Pursley, however, chose to remain in Santa Fe, where he established himself as a carpenter. In 1807, Lieutenant Zebulon Pike encountered Pursley, describing him as a man of strong intellect and courage who had amassed considerable wealth. Despite being treated well by the Spanish authorities, Pursley was placed under constant surveillance and forbidden from communicating with the East. He was also required to pledge that he would not leave the country without government approval. This restriction was likely due to Pursley’s imprudent disclosure of his gold discovery to the Spaniards, who were eager for him to lead them to the location. However, Pursley refused to reveal the secret, believing the location to be within United States territory.
The five years following Pike’s expedition remain largely undocumented in terms of Spanish-American interaction, though sporadic trade likely continued. However, Pike’s published account of his travels in 1810 ignited widespread interest in the region. His descriptions of the high prices and immense profits to be gained in the northern Mexican provinces resonated deeply with adventurous frontiersmen. Hunters, traders, and trappers, the archetypal pioneers of the era, were inspired to journey across the uncharted lands of Louisiana to this "new land of promise." In 1812, an expedition was organized by Robert McKnight, James Beard, Peter Chambers, and others. Mistakenly believing that the revolutionary movement led by Miguel Hidalgo in 1810 had abolished trade restrictions, the group traveled to New Mexico, guided by Pike’s directions.
Their route took them westward to the Colorado mountains and then down the Rio Grande to Taos, New Mexico. Upon arriving in Santa Fe, they found themselves in a precarious situation. Hidalgo’s liberal reforms had been suppressed, the revolutionary leader executed, and royalists had regained control. Foreigners, especially Americans, were viewed with suspicion and perceived as potential agents of revolution. The traders were arrested as spies, their merchandise confiscated, and they were imprisoned in Chihuahua and Durango for nine years. During their imprisonment, Congressman Scott of Missouri attempted to secure their release, and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams sent letters to the Spanish and Mexican governments, but to no avail. It was not until 1822, when the revolutionary party under Agustín de Iturbide regained power, that the Americans were freed.
Even before McKnight and his companions returned in 1815, Julius de Mun and Auguste P. Choteau led a large party to the upper Arkansas River to hunt and trade with Native Americans. In 1816, they entered New Mexico and visited Taos and Santa Fe, where Governor Mainez welcomed them and granted them permission to hunt and trade north of the Red River and east of the mountains. However, in June 1817, under Governor Don Pedro Allende, Spanish dragoons arrested Choteau, De Mun, and 24 others and brought them to Santa Fe. The Spanish confiscated their goods, valued at over $30,000. The Americans were court-martialed, imprisoned for two days, and then released without recovering their property. They filed a lawsuit against the New Mexican authorities, which remained unresolved until 1836.
Despite these setbacks, the narratives of these early adventurers only fueled further expeditions. In 1822, Hugh Glenn, a merchant from Ohio, organized a party and traveled up the Arkansas River to Santa Fe. That same year, Captain William Becknell of Missouri led a group from Franklin, Missouri, to trade with the Comanche. They met a group of Mexican rangers who directed them to New Mexico, where they made a profit despite having limited merchandise. Becknell returned to Missouri alone that winter, leaving his company in Santa Fe.
Becknell’s second expedition, however, was a harrowing experience. He resolved to take a direct route to Santa Fe, crossing the arid plains towards the Cimarron River. Without adequate water, the party suffered immensely, resorting to desperate measures such as killing their dogs and mutilating their mules in a futile attempt to quench their thirst. They were eventually saved by a buffalo with a stomach full of water, which allowed them to reach the Arkansas River and eventually Taos.
The period from 1821 to 1822 marks the true beginning of the Santa Fe Trade. Caravans grew in size and value, and the worth of transported merchandise increased from $5,000 to $80,000. The fall of Spanish authority and the establishment of the Mexican government removed restrictions on trade, attracting more traders who found the profits substantial. Prior to trade with the United States, New Mexico relied on Spain or Mexico for supplies, often paying exorbitant prices for manufactured goods. This situation made the region ripe for American merchants seeking lucrative markets.
A significant development in the Santa Fe Trade was the introduction of wagons. Before 1824, goods were transported by pack mules, limiting the amount of freight. In that year, caravans began using wheeled vehicles, including "Dearborn carriages." The experiment was successful, and wagons became the primary mode of transportation. Initially, horses were used to pull the wagons, but mules soon became the preferred choice. In 1829, oxen were also found to be suitable for the journey.
The caravans initially started from Franklin, Missouri, but in 1831, Independence, Missouri, became the primary point of departure due to its proximity to the western frontier. Independence was a bustling town, filled with traders, trappers, and emigrants preparing for their journeys. Organizing a caravan involved electing a "Captain of the Caravan" to oversee the expedition. The merchandise consisted of woolen and cotton goods, silks, hardware, and notions. Provisions included bacon, flour, coffee, sugar, and salt, with buffalo providing fresh meat.
The caravans would then journey together until they reached Council Grove, Kansas. The wagons would advance slowly in four parallel columns but in broken lines. Every night, the wagons were formed into a hollow square for defense. Upon approaching Santa Fe, "runners" would be sent ahead to arrange accommodations and negotiate with customs officials. The arrival in Santa Fe was a cause for celebration, with the locals greeting the caravans with enthusiasm.
The Mexican government imposed high tariffs on goods, averaging about 100% of the cost in the United States. The return trip commenced about a month after arrival, with the wagons carrying gold-dust, silver bullion, furs, buffalo rugs, wool, and Mexican blankets. The homeward journey was typically faster than the outward journey.
As the Santa Fe Trade became established, petitions were sent to Congress to request a road be marked out. In 1825, a bill was passed, but the work was never completed. The initial route followed a line westward to the Colorado mountains and then south to Taos. Later, a route along the Arkansas River and the Raton Pass was used. However, the most popular route was along the Arkansas River, across to the Cimarron River, and then to Wagon Mound, Las Vegas, San Miguel, and Santa Fe.
Famous figures such as Kit Carson gained renown as guides along the Santa Fe Trail. Other notable figures included Colonel Albert G. Boone, James L. Collins, Josiah Gregg, Captain Jedediah Smith, Charles Bent, Thomas Kerr, and Captain John Sutter.
Initially, there was little conflict with Native Americans, but as the trade increased, attacks became more frequent. The traders applied for government protection, and in 1829, a United States escort was provided. However, attacks continued, leading to further requests for military protection.
The Santa Fe Trade continued without interruption after its re-establishment in 1844 and was not significantly affected by the war with Mexico. The trade flourished under American rule, but the extension of the railroads eventually rendered the wagon trains obsolete.