The Zuni – A Mysterious People
The Zuni people, an enigma wrapped in the history of the American Southwest, stand apart as one of the most culturally distinct and enduring of the Pueblo peoples. Their story is woven into the very fabric of New Mexico’s landscape, a testament to resilience, adaptation, and the unwavering preservation of tradition. Like their Puebloan relatives, the Zuni are believed to descend from the Ancient Puebloans, also known as the Anasazi, who flourished in the arid lands of present-day New Mexico, Arizona, southern Colorado, and Utah for over a millennium. The echoes of this ancient lineage resonate in the architectural style of their pueblos, the intricate artistry of their crafts, and the deeply rooted spiritual beliefs that continue to guide their lives. Today, the Zuni Pueblo, situated approximately 35 miles south of Gallup, New Mexico, is home to around 6,000 people, a living embodiment of a history stretching back an estimated 1,300 years in this very location.
The Zuni’s self-designated tribal name, A’shiwi (Shi’wi), translates to "the flesh," a name imbued with a sense of identity and belonging. In contrast, the term "Zuni" is a Spanish adaptation of a word with an unknown origin, a linguistic echo of the cultural collisions that have shaped their history. Perhaps the most distinctive aspect of the Zuni is their unique language, a linguistic isolate unrelated to any other Pueblo language or any known language family. This linguistic isolation has played a crucial role in preserving their cultural identity, allowing them to maintain traditions and beliefs largely untouched by external influences. Their traditional shamanistic religion, with its intricate ceremonies, vibrant dances, and rich mythology, remains a central pillar of Zuni life, a vibrant expression of their connection to the land and their ancestors.
The arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century marked a turning point in the history of the Zuni people. In 1540, Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, leading an expedition in search of the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola, encountered the Zuni living in six or seven large pueblos along the banks of the Zuni River. These villages, collectively known as Hawikuh, were strategically located near fertile land and abundant water resources, vital for the Zuni’s successful agricultural economy. Coronado’s initial disappointment at finding no golden cities soon turned to desperation as his expedition faced starvation. When the Zuni leaders refused to provide food for his army, Coronado, driven by necessity, ordered an attack on Hawikuh.
The ensuing skirmish, though brief, resulted in the loss of Zuni lives and the Spanish occupation of Hawikuh, which became Coronado’s headquarters for several months. This encounter set in motion a series of events that would profoundly impact the Zuni way of life. The Spanish presence disrupted their established trading networks, altered their land use practices, and imposed a new settlement system. Furthermore, the introduction of European diseases, against which the Zuni had no immunity, led to devastating population losses. Despite these hardships, the Spanish also introduced domestic livestock, such as sheep and cattle, and new crops, including wheat and peaches, which would eventually become integrated into the Zuni economy and diet. The Zuni adapted and endured, demonstrating their inherent resilience.
The early 17th century witnessed the intensification of Spanish influence through missionary efforts. In 1629, Fray Estevan de Perea visited the Acoma, Zuni, and Hopi pueblos to initiate Catholic teachings. The same year, the Spanish established Mission La Purísima Concepción at Hawikuh, aiming to convert the Zuni to Christianity. However, religious and cultural tensions soon escalated, culminating in the killing of the resident priest, Fray Francisco Letrado, by the Zuni. Fearing Spanish retaliation, the Zuni sought refuge in the mountains, abandoning Hawikuh for three years. This period of conflict highlights the deep-seated resistance to cultural and religious imposition, a theme that would continue to shape the Zuni’s relationship with the outside world. The spirit of the Zuni people remained unbroken.
The mission at Hawikuh was reestablished by the late 1650s, but it continued to suffer from frequent Apache raids from the south. In 1672, another priest was killed, and the mission was burned. This period saw a decline in the Zuni population and a reduction in the number of occupied villages, a consequence of political pressure from the Spaniards and raids by the Navajo and Apache. Violence became a regular part of Zuni life as they defended their land and resources against encroachment and resisted Spanish attempts to suppress their culture and religion. In August 1680, the Zuni joined forces with other Pueblo peoples in the historic Pueblo Revolt, which successfully drove the Spanish out of New Mexico. During the rebellion, the Zuni destroyed Mission La Purísima Concepción. The ruins of Hawikuh and the Spanish mission stand today as a testament to this tumultuous period, protected as a sacred ancestral site by the Zuni.
Following the Pueblo Revolt, the Zuni sought refuge atop Dowa Yalanne mesa, a strategic location offering natural defenses. Between 1680 and 1692, they constructed a large settlement on the mesa top, encompassing numerous pueblo rooms within a relatively small area of less than 617 acres. However, the limited land on the mesa top could not sustain the entire Zuni population, so they continued to farm and graze livestock in the valleys below. Dowa Yalanne played a crucial role in shaping Zuni settlement patterns, marking the first time the entire population gathered into a single settlement. While it’s unlikely that the other villages were completely abandoned, every Zuni family maintained a residence on Dowa Yalanne, providing a refuge in case of a Spanish return or hostile attacks from the Apache. The mesa top provided a secure and defensible position, allowing the Zuni to safeguard their community.
In 1692, Diego de Varga, the Spanish general in charge of the "reconquest," entered the village peacefully, offering amends and convincing the Zuni to abandon Dowa Yalanne. Instead of returning to their former scattered pueblos, the entire tribe settled at Halonawa on the north bank of the Zuni River. This event marked a significant shift in Zuni settlement patterns, as Halonawa became the primary Zuni Pueblo. The Franciscans returned, and the church was rebuilt, with Mission Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe constructed in 1705. Continued Navajo and Apache raids led to the establishment of sheep camps as refuge sites. These camps, situated along ridges and benches in the Zuni River Valley, were difficult to access and featured hidden corrals and small rooms. Other refuge sites were established at the base of mesas for agricultural purposes. The Zuni demonstrated their resourcefulness in adapting to the challenges of the time.
The mission church was rebuilt in 1780 during a period of relative peace. Unlike the other pueblo buildings, which were constructed of stone held together with mud mortar and covered in mud plaster, the church was built with molded adobe bricks. In the late 1700s, the church façade featured two bell towers and a balcony. However, following Mexican independence from Spain in 1821 and the secularization of missions throughout Mexico, the Franciscan priests left the mission, and no new priests were assigned there. The mission building gradually fell into disuse and disrepair.
In 1848, the Americans asserted their authority over the Mexican Southwest, and in 1877, federal officials created the Zuni Reservation. The arrival of the Southern Pacific Railroad in nearby Gallup, New Mexico, in 1881 signaled a new era of non-Indian expansion and settlement. Missionaries, including Mormons and Presbyterians, accompanied the newcomers, settling east of the village in the Zuni mountains. Traders also arrived, encouraging the Zuni to raise sheep and cattle for shipment east, ushering in a new cash-based economy. Mission Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe began to be revived when priests were reassigned to the pueblo. It was re-roofed in 1905, but more significant alterations took place in the 1960s. In a collaborative effort between the Zuni Tribe, the National Park Service, and the Catholic Diocese of Gallup, the mission and convento were excavated from 1966-1967, and reconstruction of the church began in 1969.
Today, the Zuni people stand out as a culture that has managed to remain largely unaffected by external influences. They continue to claim the same land they have always inhabited, an area roughly the size of Rhode Island, and primarily reside in the city of Zuni, New Mexico. Although some Zuni individuals live outside the city and the surrounding area, they are relatively few in number. The tribe’s ability to maintain its cultural integrity stems from its historical avoidance of conflicts that did not directly concern their own people. By remaining autonomous, they were relatively insulated from the changes occurring around them.
Zuni life, as in the past, remains deeply religious and distinct from that of other tribes. The Zuni gods are believed to reside in the lakes of Arizona and New Mexico. Chiefs and shamans conduct ceremonies during religious festivals, accompanied by song and dance, masked performances, and prayers for blessings such as fertile soil and abundant rain. Shamans hold a position of great importance in the community, providing guidance, knowledge, and healing. The Zuni Reservation’s isolation from the outside world allows its people to live relatively unencumbered by modern Western civilization. They continue to practice their traditional way of life, speak their own language, and maintain their unique cultural identity. While corn remains an important part of their culture, the tourist trade in pottery and jewelry has become a significant source of income.
The Zuni Pueblo, the largest of the 19 New Mexico pueblos, encompasses more than 700 square miles and has a population of over 10,000. It features the Hawikuh ruins, abandoned during the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, as well as craft shops and various events throughout the year. Zuni Pueblo is located on the Zuni Indian Reservation, two miles north of Zuni, New Mexico, on NM 53. Visitors are welcome daily from dawn to dusk, and tours are available for a fee. Photography is permitted only with permission. The enduring story of the Zuni people is a powerful reminder of the importance of cultural preservation and the resilience of the human spirit.