Utopias in America
The American landscape, particularly during the 18th and 19th centuries, became a fertile ground for the blossoming of utopian experiments. Hundreds of communal societies, each driven by a unique vision of an ideal world, sprung up across the nation. The Shakers alone, with their distinctive spiritual practices and communal lifestyle, established approximately 20 settlements, marking just a fraction of this widespread movement. These communities, though diverse in their specific ideologies and practices, shared a common thread: the pursuit of a utopian existence through communal living.
Robert V. Hine, in his insightful work "California’s Utopian Colonies," offers a compelling definition of a utopian colony: "a group of people who are attempting to establish a new social pattern based upon a vision of the ideal society and who have withdrawn themselves from the community at large to embody that vision in experimental form." This definition encapsulates the essence of these communities, highlighting their intentionality, their commitment to a shared ideal, and their deliberate separation from mainstream society. These utopian colonies could be religious or secular, each reflecting different approaches to attaining their vision. Religious communities emphasized a communal life rooted in spiritual principles, while secular groups sought to create human happiness through cooperative living and a belief in the power of collective action.
The emergence of these Utopias in America was deeply intertwined with the history of Western thought and religious movements. Many of the religious communal movements prevalent in Western society drew inspiration from the early Christian community in Jerusalem, described in the Bible as holding "all things in common." This aspiration to replicate the communal spirit of early Christianity fueled the development of various sects and movements.
This exploration delves into the origins and evolution of the utopian ideal, tracing its journey to the United States. It will showcase examples of notable 19th-century Utopias in America, shedding light on their unique characteristics, beliefs, and organizational structures. Furthermore, it will address the factors that ultimately contributed to the decline and dissolution of these ambitious experiments. The Utopias in America, specifically the Shaker, Rappite, and Amana experiments, alongside the Oneida Community and Brook Farm, find their intellectual and spiritual roots in the Protestant Reformation and the subsequent Enlightenment.
The Western concept of utopia finds its origins in the ancient world, where tales of a lost earthly paradise intertwined with humanity’s innate desire to create an ideal society. The Greek philosopher Plato, in his seminal work The Republic, envisioned an ideal Greek city-state characterized by communal living among the ruling class, potentially drawing inspiration from the Spartan model. It was this very idea that inspired Sir Thomas More to write his book Utopia in 1516. He described a perfect political and social system on an imaginary island. The term "Utopia" has since become synonymous with any place, state, or situation of ideal perfection. The yearning for an Edenic utopia, coupled with the allure of starting anew in the "unspoiled" landscapes of America, resonated deeply with various religious and secular groups in Europe. The notion of Utopias in America represented a fresh start, a chance to build a more equitable and fulfilling society.
The seeds of the 19th-century utopian movements were sown during the Protestant Reformation. Communal living, predominantly within monastic settings, gained prominence during the Middle Ages, notably through the Benedictine order founded by Saint Benedict of Nursia. Later, lay religious groups, such as the Beghards and Brothers and Sisters of the Free Spirit, emerged, distinguishing themselves from traditional monasteries by allowing both sexes to reside in the same community.
The Protestant Reformation, spearheaded by figures like Martin Luther and John Calvin, revolutionized Western European perspectives on religion and labor. Luther challenged the medieval hierarchy of professions by asserting the equal spiritual dignity of all work. Calvin’s doctrine of predestination, which posited that one’s salvation was predetermined and unknowable, indirectly promoted hard work and worldly success as potential indicators of divine favor. These theological concepts regarding the value of labor profoundly influenced the ethos of various American religious utopian societies. The Shakers, for instance, viewed productive labor as a sacred calling, while the Amana Inspirationists regarded labor as an integral part of God’s plan for contributing to the community.
The religious and political turmoil following the rise of Protestantism in Northern Europe led many peasants to join Anabaptist and millenarian groups, some of which, like the Hutterian Brethren, embraced communal ownership of property. Facing persecution, many groups sought refuge in America, where the idea of communal living flourished and expanded. The Ephrata Community, established in Pennsylvania in 1732, marked the first significant communal settlement. However, tragedy struck when the community cared for injured soldiers following the Battle of Brandywine in 1777. A typhus outbreak decimated both soldiers and residents, leading to the decline of the community’s vitality by the end of the century. The 19th century witnessed a significant surge in communitarian experiments on American soil. Abundant and inexpensive land, coupled with minimal government regulation and a prevailing sense of optimism and progress, created an ideal environment for the establishment of Utopias in America.
The Great Awakening, a series of religious revivals that swept through English America in the first half of the 18th century, prepared the ground for the proliferation of religious sects. Simultaneously, the Enlightenment, an 18th-century European philosophical movement characterized by rationalism and empiricism, introduced new ideas about government and the role of the individual in society. These ideas found resonance with the drafters of the American Constitution. The First Amendment, guaranteeing freedom of religion, attracted European groups facing persecution in their homelands. Upon arriving in America, some of these colonists aspired to create utopian societies: self-sufficient, agricultural, and primarily communal communities, far removed from the perceived vices of overcrowded cities. While numerous religious and secular utopian experiments dotted the American landscape, the Shakers, Rappites, the Perfectionists of the Oneida community, the Brook Farm experiment, and the Amana Colonies of the Inspirationists stand out as particularly noteworthy examples. Examining their beliefs and histories provides valuable insights into the functioning of these utopian colonies.
Amana Colony
The Amana Colony in Iowa was founded by German-speaking European settlers belonging to the Community of True Inspiration, a religious group tracing its roots back to Heimbach, Germany, in 1714. Founders J.F. Rock and E.L. Gruber sought a more profound religious experience than they felt was offered by established churches. They argued that the Lutheran Church had become too focused on intellectual debates and formalized worship, neglecting the spiritual needs of the congregation. This desire to return to the fundamentals of Christianity gained traction through Pietism, a movement emphasizing personal religious experience, humility, and diligent Bible study. The Community of True Inspiration was one of many groups emerging from Pietism.
Initially settling near Buffalo, New York, the Community sought a more isolated environment and relocated to Iowa in 1856, where they embraced communal living until the mid-1930s. For eight decades, the Amana Colonies maintained a largely self-sufficient economy, minimizing reliance on external imports. This independence was achieved by adhering to specialized crafts and farming techniques brought from Europe and passing these skills down through generations.
The Shakers
The Shakers, formally known as the United Society of Believers in Christ’s Second Coming, developed a distinctive religious expression encompassing communal living, productive labor, celibacy, pacifism, gender equality, and a ritual characterized by dancing and shaking. "Mother" Ann Lee, a key figure in Shakerism, established the movement in England in 1758. Ann Lee and her followers emigrated to America in 1774. After her death in 1784, Shaker colonies expanded. Peaking at 6,000 members before the Civil War, these communities maintained economic autonomy while producing goods for external markets. The Shakers held dissenting views on American society and aligned with various reform movements of the 19th century, including feminism, pacifism, and abolitionism. The Enfield Shakers’ diary, for example, records visits from fugitive slaves, including Sojourner Truth. Over time, their focus shifted from agriculture to handcrafts, particularly chair and furniture making.
The Enfield Shakers Historic District in Enfield, Connecticut, and the Hancock Shaker Village in Berkshire County, Massachusetts, exemplify Shaker communities. The Enfield community, established in the 1780s, reached its zenith between 1830 and 1860. In 1860, 146 Shakers in Enfield lived in gender-segregated housing and worked in the garden seed industry. The Enfield Shakers Historic District, featuring 15 buildings, is recognized for its significance in reflecting Shaker social values and communal lifestyle. Hancock Shaker Village, considered the center of Shaker authority in America from 1787 to 1947, is now a National Historic Landmark. Four other Shaker Villages have also been designated as National Historic Landmarks: Shakertown at Pleasant Hill Historic District in Harrodsburg, Kentucky; Canterbury Shaker Village in Canterbury, New Hampshire; Mount Lebanon Shaker Society in New Lebanon, New York; and Sabbathday Lake Shaker Village in New Gloucester, Maine. The latter stands as the sole surviving Shaker community.
Brook Farm
Secular utopian communities in the United States found inspiration in European ideas and philosophies. Transcendentalism, originating with German philosopher Immanuel Kant, emphasized aspects of human nature transcending experience. In America, Transcendentalism fostered a cultural renaissance in New England between 1830 and 1845, finding its most prominent expression in Ralph Waldo Emerson’s doctrine of self-reliance. Some Transcendentalists sought to put their ideals of "plain living" into practice.
Established in West Roxbury, Massachusetts, on 200 acres of land from 1841 to 1847, the Brook Farm Institute of Agriculture and Education gained prominence due to its association with prominent literary and intellectual figures. Organized and directed by George Ripley, a former Unitarian minister and literary critic, Brook Farm attracted figures like Charles A. Dana, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, William Henry Channing, John S. Dwight, and Sophia Dana Ripley.
Brook Farm attracted intellectuals, carpenters, farmers, shoemakers, and printers. The community provided housing, fuel, wages, clothing, and food to all members, their children, and dependents. It offered an infant school, a primary school, and a six-year college preparatory course.
The 1846 fire that destroyed the newly financed Phalanstery building, along with financial difficulties and Hawthorne’s lawsuit against Ripley and Dana, led to the community’s demise the following year. The Brook Farm site is now a National Historic Landmark, although only a small cottage is associated with the community. Nathaniel Hawthorne drew on his experiences at Brook Farm for his novel The Blithedale Romance. The Brook Farm experiment began with about 15 members and never exceeded 120 individuals.
The Rappites
The Harmony Society, also known as the Rappites, shared certain beliefs with the Shakers. Named after their founder, Johann Georg Rapp, the Rappites immigrated from Württemberg, Germany, to the United States in 1803, seeking religious freedom. Establishing a colony called Harmony in Butler County, Pennsylvania, the Rappites held the Bible as humanity’s sole authority. They practiced celibacy, lived communally without individual possessions, and believed their efforts would restore harmony between male and female elements in humanity. Under Frederick Rapp’s guidance, the Harmony Society’s economy evolved from subsistence agriculture to diversified manufacturing.
By 1814, the Society comprised 700 members, a town of 130 houses, and numerous factories and processing plants. Their textiles and woolens gained widespread recognition for their quality, as did their wines and whiskey.
The Harmony Society eventually outgrew its markets. After selling their holdings to a Mennonite group for $100,000, they relocated to the Wabash River in Indiana. There, they built a prosperous New Harmony community, only to sell it to Robert Owen, a social reformer from Scotland, and his partner, William Maclure, in 1825. The Harmonists returned to Pennsylvania and established their final home at Economy (now Old Economy) in Ambridge. The Harmonists reached their peak prosperity in 1866, but the practice of celibacy and internal divisions gradually thinned their ranks, leading to the community’s dissolution in 1905. The surviving buildings of the first settlement in Harmony are a National Historic Landmark named the Harmony Historic District.
The Oneida Community
John Humphreys Noyes, the founder and leader of the Oneida Community, was born in Brattleboro, Vermont, in 1811. He joined the Andover Theological Seminary in 1831 and later transferred to Yale Theological College.
In 1833, he founded the New Haven Anti-Slavery Society and the New Haven Free Church, where he preached his belief that perfection was attainable in this life. His followers became known as Perfectionists. However, Noyes’ belief in "complex marriage" alienated many in Putney, New York, where he lived. "Complex marriage" meant the perfectionists considered themselves married to the group, not a single partner. Noyes moved his community to Oneida, New York, where the group practiced "Bible Communism."
Artisan members’ skills were channeled into broom and shoe manufacturing, flour processing, lumber milling, and trap manufacturing. The Perfectionists in Oneida shared property, meals, and arrangements for raising and educating children. They built the Oneida Community Mansion House, which housed the community from the early 1850s. The Oneida Community Mansion House is now a National Historic Landmark. In 1874, the Oneida Community had 270 members. Misunderstandings and traditional views led to an 1879 meeting of ministers in Syracuse, New York, condemning the settlement. Internal unrest forced Noyes to flee to Canada in 1879, and "complex marriage" ended soon after. The communal utopia ended in January 1881 when the Oneida community became a joint-stock corporation.
The Demise of the 19th-Century Utopian Colonies
The 19th century saw the rise of numerous religious and social communal groups. By the end of the century, even Theosophical colonies, based on Madame Blavatsky’s fusion of Eastern and Western mysticism, appeared in places like Point Loma and Temple Home, California. Other groups included the Zoarites in Ohio, the Moravians of North Carolina, and the followers of Wilhelm Keil, a Methodist minister influenced by pietism, who founded colonies in Bethel, Missouri, and Aurora, Oregon. Of these groups, only the Amana Inspirationists built a network of seven villages in an agricultural region. They survived by adapting their system into secular and spiritual organizations. The Inspirationists of Amana, like other communal groups, based their communities on agriculture. Both men and women worked, although Amana’s women did not work in trades and the ministry like Shaker women.
While the 20th century saw further communal living experiments, the wave that founded the 19th-century religious and secular utopian communities had begun to subside. Some of the 19th-century groups were established and depended on the strength of their leaders; those who survived into the 20th century had to alter their way of life significantly as traditional rural life evolved due to the industrial, economic, and scientific progress in the larger society. The causes of these utopian colonies’ demise varied. Overall, conflict with an increasingly industrialized world and external hostility from the larger society likely contributed to their decline.