The Wounded Knee Massacre of December 29, 1890, stands as one of the darkest chapters in American history—a day when the U.S. Army’s 7th Cavalry opened fire on a band of Lakota Sioux, killing an estimated 300 men, women, and children. This tragedy marked the final major armed conflict between the United States and Plains Indians and symbolized the devastating collision between Indigenous sovereignty and westward expansion. Understanding what happened at Wounded Knee requires examining the broken treaties, cultural suppression, and spiritual resistance that culminated in the bloodshed beside a frozen creek in South Dakota. This article explores the historical context, the role of the Ghost Dance movement, and the lasting legacy of a massacre that continues to resonate in Native American communities today.
The Road to Wounded Knee: Broken Treaties and Lost Lands
The seeds of Wounded Knee were sown decades before the first shots rang out. Following the 1874 discovery of gold in the Black Hills—sacred territory to the Lakota—white settlers flooded the Dakota Territory, seizing millions of acres and nearly exterminating the buffalo population that sustained Plains Indian life. The Lakota, who had roamed freely across the Great Plains, were forced onto government reservations, their traditional hunting grounds evaporated and their culture eroded by policies like the Dawes Allotment Act of 1887, which further dismantled tribal land holdings.
By 1890, the Lakota were enduring droughts and epidemics of measles, whooping cough, and influenza. “The Lakota were very distraught at that time,” says Lakota historian Donovin Sprague, a descendant of both survivors and victims. “They lost massive amounts of land, and many were dealing with the recent surrender to the reservation system, which forbade the Sun Dance, their most important religious ceremony, and required permission to leave.” This systematic suppression of culture and autonomy created a powder keg of despair—one that the Ghost Dance movement would ignite with hope, only to end in catastrophe.
The Ghost Dance Movement: Spiritual Resistance and Fear
In the years leading up to the massacre, a religious movement swept across the Great Plains. The Ghost Dance, which first appeared in Nevada around 1870, gained popularity among the Lakota after its 1889 revival by the Paiute prophet Wovoka. Adherents believed that participating in a ritual circular dance would usher in a utopian future: a cataclysm would destroy the United States, eradicate white colonists, and resurrect everything they had lost—their land, their buffalo herds, and even their dead ancestors. Wearing white muslin shirts they believed would repel bullets, nearly one-third of the Lakota had joined the movement by the winter of 1890.
“They saw the Ghost Dance as a panacea,” Sprague explains. “All these great transitions were happening in their lives, and they thought this new religion offered them something.” But to frightened white settlers and federal agents, the dance signaled an impending armed uprising. “Indians are dancing in the snow and are wild and crazy,” telegraph ed federal agent Daniel F. Royer from Pine Ridge in November 1890. “We need protection, and we need it now.” The government banned Ghost Dance ceremonies and mobilized the largest military deployment since the Civil War, setting the stage for confrontation.
Sitting Bull’s Death and the Flight of Chief Big Foot
Tensions escalated when Indian police attempted to arrest Chief Sitting Bull on the Standing Rock Reservation on December 15, 1890. The legendary Hunkpapa Lakota leader—who had defeated Custer at the Little Bighorn in 1876—was killed in the ensuing melee, despite not being a Ghost Dancer. Fearing arrest, Sitting Bull’s half-brother, Chief Spotted Elk (often called Big Foot), fled with a band of Lakota toward the Pine Ridge Reservation, over 200 miles away. His group consisted mostly of elders, women, and children, and Spotted Elk himself was gravely ill with pneumonia.
On December 28, the 7th Cavalry caught up with them near Wounded Knee Creek. The soldiers arrested Spotted Elk and positioned their Hotchkiss guns—rapid-fire artillery—on a rise overlooking the camp. The next morning, as soldiers surrounded the Lakota and demanded they surrender their weapons, a scuffle broke out and a single shot was fired. Within seconds, the cavalry unleashed a hailstorm of bullets. “Remember Custer!” one soldier shouted as the troops executed the defenseless at point-blank range. When the shooting stopped, at least 150 Lakota were dead (Sprague and other historians put the number at twice as high), two-thirds of them women and children. Twenty-five soldiers also died, mostly from friendly fire.
The Aftermath: Mass Grave and Medals of Honor
The dead were carried to a nearby Episcopal church and laid in two rows beneath Christmas decorations. Days later, a burial party dug a pit and dumped the frozen bodies into a mass grave. Some survivors were taken to Fort Sheridan in Illinois as prisoners, later released into the custody of William “Buffalo Bill” Cody for his Wild West Show. “The show was not a positive portrayal of their people, but it beat sitting in a jail cell,” Sprague notes. Despite General Nelson Miles calling the carnage “the most abominable criminal military blunder and a horrible massacre of women and children,” the U.S. Army awarded the Medal of Honor—its highest commendation—to 20 members of the 7th Cavalry who participated in the slaughter.
The massacre did not end the trauma. In February 1973, activists with the American Indian Movement (AIM) seized and occupied Wounded Knee for 71 days to protest the U.S. government’s mistreatment of Native Americans. The standoff resulted in the deaths of two Native Americans and brought renewed attention to Indigenous rights. For many Lakota, Wounded Knee remains a sacred site of remembrance and a symbol of resistance. As survivor Black Elk recalled in 1931: “I can still see the butchered women and children lying heaped and scattered all along the crooked gulch… And I can see that something else died there in the bloody mud and was buried in the blizzard. A people’s dream died there.”
Historical Context & Key Cultural Takeaways
- Broken Treaties and Land Theft: The massacre was the culmination of decades of broken promises, including the seizure of the Black Hills after the 1874 gold discovery and the Dawes Act’s dismantling of communal lands.
- Cultural Suppression: The U.S. government banned the Sun Dance and other spiritual practices, forcing assimilation and undermining Lakota identity.
- Misunderstanding of the Ghost Dance: White authorities misinterpreted the peaceful spiritual movement as a war declaration, fueling paranoia and military escalation.
- Unjust Recognition: The awarding of Medals of Honor to soldiers who participated in the massacre highlights the dehumanization of Native Americans and the ongoing fight for historical justice.
- Legacy of Resistance: Wounded Knee became a rallying cry for Native activism, from the 1973 AIM occupation to contemporary movements for sovereignty and healing.
Frequently Asked Questions
What exactly happened at Wounded Knee?
On December 29, 1890, the U.S. 7th Cavalry surrounded a band of Lakota Ghost Dancers under Chief Big Foot near Wounded Knee Creek. During a weapons search, a shot was fired, prompting soldiers to open fire with rifles and Hotchkiss guns. Within minutes, approximately 300 Lakota—mostly women and children—were killed, along with 25 soldiers (mostly from friendly fire).
Why was the Ghost Dance considered a threat?
The Ghost Dance was a spiritual movement that promised the restoration of Native lands, buffalo, and ancestors. White settlers and federal agents feared it was a precursor to armed uprising, leading to a ban and military intervention.
How many people died at Wounded Knee?
Estimates vary. The U.S. Army initially reported 150 Lakota deaths, but historians like Donovin Sprague believe the true number is closer to 300. Two-thirds of the victims were women and children.
What was the aftermath of the massacre?
The dead were buried in a mass grave. Twenty soldiers received the Medal of Honor. Survivors faced imprisonment and later exploitation in Wild West shows. The massacre marked the end of the Indian Wars and remains a symbol of injustice and resilience.
How is Wounded Knee remembered today?
Wounded Knee is a sacred site for the Lakota and a focal point for Native American activism. The 1973 AIM occupation brought national attention to Indigenous rights, and annual commemorations honor the victims and survivors.
Concluding Synthesis: Cultural Legacy and Modern Preservation
The Wounded Knee Massacre was not an isolated incident but the tragic result of systemic policies aimed at erasing Indigenous sovereignty and culture. Today, the site is owned by the Oglala Sioux Tribe and remains a place of pilgrimage and reflection. Efforts to preserve the memory of Wounded Knee include oral history projects, museum exhibits, and calls for the revocation of Medals of Honor awarded to perpetrators. As we reflect on this history, it is crucial to honor the resilience of the Lakota people and support ongoing efforts for justice and cultural revitalization. The dream that died in the bloody mud of Wounded Knee lives on in the fight for Native rights and the commitment to never forget.
Tribal & Historical Heritage Reference
Tribal Nations: Lakota (Teton Sioux), including Hunkpapa and Miniconjou bands.
Key Figures: Sitting Bull, Chief Spotted Elk (Big Foot), Wovoka (Paiute prophet), Black Elk (survivor).
Location: Wounded Knee Creek, Pine Ridge Reservation, South Dakota.
Date: December 29, 1890.
Preservation: The site is part of the Pine Ridge Reservation; historical records are held at the National Museum of the American Indian and the South Dakota State Historical Society.
