The story of the Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina is a compelling narrative of resilience, cultural preservation, and an enduring fight for justice. For centuries, this vibrant community, primarily concentrated in Robeson County, has maintained a distinct identity despite immense pressures. Understanding the Lumbee Tribe history and recognition efforts requires delving into their complex origins, their steadfast commitment to self-determination, and the unique challenges they have faced in their pursuit of full federal acknowledgment. This article explores the rich Lumbee Tribe history and recognition efforts, tracing their journey from colonial encounters to their contemporary struggle for equitable treatment and the full rights afforded to other federally recognized Native American tribes.
Origins and Early Identity Formation (Pre-Colonial to 18th Century)
The precise origins of the Lumbee people are multifaceted and subject to ongoing historical and anthropological debate, reflecting the dynamic nature of indigenous communities in the Southeast after European contact. Unlike many Western tribes, the Lumbee do not trace their ancestry to a single, easily identifiable historical tribe with a continuous treaty relationship with the U.S. government. Instead, their narrative is one of coalescence and adaptation.
Scholars and Lumbee oral traditions suggest that their ancestors were remnants of various Siouan-speaking tribes—such as the Cheraw, Keyauwee, Saraw, and Pee Dee—who were displaced and decimated by disease, warfare, and the slave trade during the colonial period. These groups, along with possibly some Tuscarora and Algonquian speakers, sought refuge in the swampy, isolated areas along the Lumber River (from which the name "Lumbee" eventually derived) in what is now Robeson County. Here, they forged a new, distinct community, intermarrying and developing shared cultural practices, a common language (English, but with unique dialectical features), and a collective identity as "Indians."
By the mid-18th century, this emerging community was firmly established, characterized by a strong sense of kinship, mutual support, and a collective determination to maintain their separate status in a rapidly changing colonial landscape dominated by European settlers and enslaved Africans. Their self-identification as "Indian" was not merely a matter of heritage but a conscious assertion of their distinct place within the emerging tri-racial social hierarchy of the American South.
19th Century: Resilience Amidst Adversity
The 19th century presented significant challenges for the Lumbee. North Carolina, like other Southern states, solidified a rigid racial caste system that largely recognized only "white" and "black." The Lumbee, along with other "free people of color" who identified as Indian, found themselves in an anomalous position. They were not considered white, nor were they enslaved or considered fully "black" under the law, though they often faced similar discriminatory practices.
To preserve their identity and autonomy, the Lumbee community actively built and maintained their own institutions. They established their own churches, schools, and social networks, which served as crucial pillars of cultural continuity and self-governance. This period saw the emergence of strong community leaders who advocated for their rights and protected their people from encroachment and discrimination.
One of the most defining events of this era was the "Lowry War" (1864-1872), led by Henry Berry Lowry. Lowry, a Lumbee man, led a band of outlaws and rebels against the Confederacy and later the local white establishment, fighting against conscription, land dispossession, and racial oppression. While often portrayed as a mere bandit by external authorities, Lowry became a folk hero and a symbol of resistance and self-determination for the Lumbee people, solidifying their collective identity and their reputation for fierce independence. This episode remains a vital part of Lumbee Tribe history and recognition efforts, showcasing their historical struggle against oppression.
Early 20th Century: Formalizing Identity and Seeking Recognition
As the 20th century dawned, the Lumbee intensified their efforts to gain formal recognition from state and federal governments. This period was marked by an evolution in their collective self-designation, reflecting both internal discussions and external perceptions.
Initially, they were often referred to as "Croatan Indians," a name adopted in the late 19th century by the state of North Carolina. This name, referencing the "Lost Colony" of Roanoke and the friendly Native Americans who likely absorbed its survivors, provided a romanticized yet distinct identity in the eyes of the dominant society. In 1885, North Carolina officially recognized them as "Croatan Indians," establishing separate schools for them—a mixed blessing, as it acknowledged their distinctness but also cemented their segregation.
By the early 1900s, some Lumbee leaders, seeking a stronger connection to a widely recognized tribal group and perhaps hoping to leverage the prestige associated with the Cherokee Nation, began to identify as "Cherokee Indians of Robeson County." This shift was partly strategic, aiming to gain federal attention and resources often reserved for tribes with historical treaties. However, this name also caused friction with the federally recognized Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians and the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, who viewed it as an appropriation of their identity.
The name "Lumbee" gained prominence in the mid-20th century, derived from the Lumber River that runs through their ancestral lands. This name represented a return to a locally specific identity, distinct from other tribes, and firmly rooted in their geographic homeland. In 1953, a tribal referendum overwhelmingly approved the name "Lumbee." This was followed by an act of the North Carolina General Assembly in 1953 officially recognizing them as the "Lumbee Indians of North Carolina."
The 1956 Lumbee Act: A Double-Edged Sword
The pivotal moment in the Lumbee Tribe history and recognition efforts at the federal level came with the passage of the Lumbee Act by the U.S. Congress in 1956. This act was a landmark achievement, as it formally acknowledged the Lumbee as an "Indian tribe." However, it came with a significant and highly problematic caveat: the act explicitly denied the Lumbee "the right to any services heretofore or hereafter furnished by the United States to Indians because of their status as Indians." In essence, Congress recognized their Indian identity but simultaneously withheld the benefits and protections that come with full federal recognition, such as access to federal programs for health, education, housing, and economic development, and the right to self-governance on trust lands.
This unique and incomplete recognition was a bitter pill. While the Lumbee were finally recognized by the federal government after decades of advocacy, the "termination clause" effectively put them in a perpetual state of limbo. It meant they could not access the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) services or establish a government-to-government relationship with the U.S., unlike other federally recognized tribes. This specific legislative act is a central point of contention in the ongoing Lumbee Tribe history and recognition efforts.
Post-1956: The Enduring Fight for Full Recognition
Since 1956, the Lumbee Tribe has relentlessly pursued full federal recognition, meaning the repeal of the discriminatory termination clause. This effort has involved decades of lobbying Congress, introducing numerous bills, and educating the public about their unique history and the injustice of their current status.
Their arguments for full recognition are compelling:
- Historical Continuity: The Lumbee have maintained a continuous community, cultural identity, and governance structures in Robeson County for centuries, predating the formation of the United States.
- Self-Sufficiency: Despite the lack of federal assistance, the Lumbee have built and sustained their own institutions, including a tribal government, schools, and cultural programs, demonstrating their capacity for self-governance.
- Discriminatory Treatment: The 1956 Act is seen as inherently discriminatory, treating the Lumbee differently from all other federally recognized tribes. It denies them the same rights and resources simply because of a unique historical circumstance—their origins as a coalescent community rather than a treaty-era tribe.
- Economic Disparity: The lack of federal services has perpetuated economic hardship within the community, limiting access to essential healthcare, educational opportunities, and infrastructure development that other tribes receive.
The path to full recognition has been fraught with obstacles. One persistent challenge has been opposition from other federally recognized tribes, particularly the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians and, in the past, the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma. Their concerns have historically centered on issues of identity and the potential dilution of resources, though this opposition has softened significantly in recent years as the Lumbee’s unique situation has gained broader understanding. Another hurdle is the stringent and often burdensome criteria of the BIA’s administrative recognition process, which prioritizes a documented continuous political relationship with the U.S. government, a standard difficult for tribes like the Lumbee, whose federal relationship was unilaterally defined by the 1956 Act.
Despite these challenges, the Lumbee Tribe’s resolve has never wavered. They have garnered increasing bipartisan support in Congress, with numerous bills introduced over the decades aimed at achieving full recognition. In 2020, the House of Representatives passed the Lumbee Recognition Act with overwhelming bipartisan support, but it stalled in the Senate. The bill seeks to grant the Lumbee Tribe the same rights and benefits as other federally recognized tribes, without affecting any existing tribal rights or claims.
Contemporary Lumbee Tribe: Identity and Future
Today, the Lumbee Tribe is the largest Native American tribe in North Carolina and the largest tribe east of the Mississippi River without full federal recognition, boasting a population of over 60,000 members. They operate a robust tribal government, providing services to their members, promoting cultural preservation through language programs, powwows, and educational initiatives, and engaging in economic development. The Lumbee Cultural Center and Museum serve as vital hubs for preserving and celebrating their heritage.
The pursuit of full federal recognition remains the paramount goal of the Lumbee Tribe. It is not merely about access to federal funding; it is about rectifying a historical injustice, affirming their inherent sovereignty, and ensuring their rightful place within the family of federally recognized Native American nations. The Lumbee Tribe history and recognition efforts embody a powerful testament to the enduring spirit of a people who have consistently defined themselves, built their own institutions, and fought for their identity and rights against formidable odds. Their story is a crucial chapter in the broader narrative of Native American survival, resilience, and the ongoing quest for justice and self-determination in the United States. The Lumbee Tribe history and recognition efforts are an ongoing testament to their unwavering spirit.
