General James Carleton’s Operations in New Mexico
The vast territory of New Mexico, during the tumultuous years of the American Civil War, became a complex theater of conflict. While the nation grappled with its internal division, a different kind of war unfolded in the Southwest. As Colonel Edward Canby strategically consolidated Union forces along the Rio Grande to counter the Confederate threat, the indigenous populations of the region perceived an opportunity. With the attention of the United States military diverted, the Apache, Navajo, Kiowa, and Comanche tribes seized the moment to raid ranches, settlements, and the vital Santa Fe Trail, facing less resistance than usual. This environment of escalating conflict set the stage for the arrival of a figure who would leave an indelible mark on the history of the region: General James Carleton.
In 1862, General James Carleton and the California Volunteers arrived in New Mexico, tasked with quelling the escalating Native American raids. These soldiers, initially enlisted to preserve the Union, soon found themselves allied with New Mexico volunteers in a brutal campaign against the Apache, Navajo, Kiowa, and Comanche tribes. From 1862 to 1865, these forces relentlessly pursued the Native American tribes across the territory, engaging in a war characterized by harsh tactics and profound consequences. The operations of General James Carleton’s Operations in New Mexico would be remembered for their decisive impact on the Native American populations of the Southwest.
General James Carleton was not a man known for subtlety or diplomacy. He was a seasoned and aggressive officer, hardened by years of frontier experience. His approach to Indian warfare was defined by relentless pursuit and severe punishment. A chilling testament to his philosophy can be found in his orders to a subordinate: "All Indian men… are to be killed whenever and wherever you can find them. The women and children will not be harmed, but you will take them prisoners." This ruthless directive encapsulated Carleton’s vision for subjugating the Native American tribes of the Southwest. The implementation of this policy would fundamentally alter the landscape of the region, forever changing the lives of its indigenous inhabitants. The impact of General James Carleton’s Operations in New Mexico continues to be debated and analyzed to this day.
Carleton’s principal field commander was none other than Kit Carson, a name synonymous with the American West. As colonel of the 1st New Mexico Cavalry, Carson was the instrument through which Carleton would execute his policies. Carson, himself no stranger to Indian fighting, possessed an intimate knowledge of the land and the Native American tribes who inhabited it. This combination of Carleton’s unwavering resolve and Carson’s expertise proved to be a formidable force. General James Carleton’s Operations in New Mexico relied heavily on the skills and experience of men like Kit Carson.
Carleton’s strategy involved a multi-pronged approach. He began by reinforcing the existing network of frontier forts and constructing new ones, establishing a stronger military presence throughout the territory. In the winter of 1862-63, he dispatched Kit Carson to Fort Stanton, located in south-central New Mexico, with orders to subdue the Mescalero Apache. By March 1863, Carson had successfully subjugated the tribe, forcing 400 warriors and their families to relocate to a newly established reservation on the Pecos River in eastern New Mexico. To oversee this new settlement, Carleton ordered the construction of Fort Sumner. With the Mescalero Apache contained, Carson was then reassigned to Fort Union, awaiting further instructions. This initial phase of General James Carleton’s Operations in New Mexico demonstrated his commitment to a systematic and uncompromising approach.
In June 1863, Carleton turned his attention to the Navajo, a tribe that had been a persistent threat to New Mexico for over two centuries. Previous attempts to conquer the Navajo, led by Colonel Edwin Sumner in 1851 and 1852, and Colonel Canby in 1860, had yielded disappointing results. Undeterred, Carleton ordered Kit Carson to march west with three companies of cavalry from Fort Union, rendezvous with the remainder of the 1st New Mexico Regiment, and launch a full-scale campaign into the Navajo homeland. The stage was set for a conflict that would reshape the destiny of the Navajo people.
Throughout the summer and autumn of 1863, Carson led his troops on relentless patrols throughout Navajo territory. While large-scale battles were rare, Carson’s strategy was to systematically weaken the Navajo by capturing their livestock, destroying their crops, and denying them any respite. This constant pressure took a heavy toll on the Navajo, disrupting their traditional way of life and eroding their morale. In January 1864, Carson launched an invasion of Canon de Chelly, a deep canyon in present-day Arizona that served as the Navajo’s primary stronghold. This incursion into their most sacred and defensible territory delivered a devastating psychological blow to the Navajo. The realization that nowhere was safe from Kit Carson and the relentless pursuit of the U.S. military shattered their spirit.
Weary, demoralized, and deprived of resources, Navajo bands began to surrender, one by one, at Fort Defiance in Arizona and Fort Wingate in New Mexico. By the summer of 1864, approximately 8,000 Navajo had surrendered. Carleton ordered them to be marched east to Fort Sumner, where they were to be settled alongside the Mescalero Apache. This forced relocation, known as the "Long Walk," was a harrowing experience for the Navajo, marked by hardship, suffering, and loss. The consequences of General James Carleton’s Operations in New Mexico were felt most acutely by the Navajo people.
The Fort Sumner experiment proved to be a failure. The land was ill-suited to support such a large population, and the Navajo, traditionally pastoralists and weavers, were not particularly inclined to farming. Furthermore, the forced proximity of the Navajo and Mescalero Apache, two historically antagonistic tribes, created constant friction and unrest. The Apache eventually broke free from the reservation and remained unsubdued until the late 1870s. For the Navajo, the confinement at Fort Sumner, far from their ancestral lands, was a profound tragedy. It crushed their aggressive spirit and left them longing for their homeland. In 1868, after years of suffering and hardship, the Navajo were finally allowed to return to their homeland, vowing never again to challenge the white man, regardless of provocation.
On the eastern frontier of New Mexico, the Kiowa and Comanche tribes had become increasingly troublesome, raiding settlements and disrupting traffic along the Santa Fe Trail. By 1864, the plains were engulfed in a devastating war, and caravans traveling the Santa Fe Trail faced constant danger. Recognizing the need to protect his supply lines, Carleton implemented measures to safeguard the Santa Fe Trail. During the travel seasons of 1864 and 1865, cavalry detachments were dispatched from Fort Union to establish camps at strategic locations along both the Mountain and Cimarron Branches of the trail.
For a period, Carleton also offered escort services, gathering trains at Fort Union and dispatching them once a week with cavalry guards. The escort would travel as far as the Arkansas River, where they would await a westbound train to accompany back to Fort Union. However, this service proved to be too resource-intensive, requiring more troops than Carleton could spare, and it was eventually discontinued.
Never content with merely defending, Carleton decided to take the offensive, striking at the heart of the Kiowa and Comanche territory. In November 1864, he sent Kit Carson and his regiment into the Texas Panhandle, the heart of Kiowa-Comanche country. On November 26, Carson’s troops attacked a large Kiowa encampment on the Canadian River, near the ruins of a trading post once operated by William Bent. Joined by Comanche warriors, the Kiowa launched a counterattack, besieging Carson and his men in the ruins of the trading post. The ensuing Battle of Adobe Walls raged throughout the day, with mountain howitzers proving instrumental in keeping the Indians at bay. As darkness fell, Carson’s troops burned the Kiowa village and withdrew.
In the East, the Civil War reached its conclusion at Appomattox Court House in April 1865, and the victorious Union armies began to demobilize. On the western frontier, the volunteer regiments that had fought against Native Americans instead of Confederates were gradually disbanded. The regulars returned west to garrison the forts and continue the fight against the Native American tribes. By the autumn of 1866, the California and New Mexico volunteer regiments had been released from service, and General James Carleton relinquished his command. The era of General James Carleton’s Operations in New Mexico had come to an end, leaving behind a legacy of conflict, displacement, and profound transformation.