Indian Captives
The treatment of captives among Native American tribes was a complex issue, deeply interwoven with the intricate social structures and ethical codes that governed their societies. These codes, inextricably linked to clan, gentile, and other blood-related organizations, dictated the responsibilities and obligations that tribal members held towards one another. Neglecting these duties could fracture the very foundation of the community, leading to the ostracization of the offender.
Interactions between different clans or bands within the same tribe were typically guided by established customs and traditions that had evolved over generations. However, maintaining peaceful relations with more distant tribes often required formal peace-making ceremonies, which served as fragile agreements that could be shattered by long-standing feuds.
The treatment of individuals from tribes with whom neither peace nor war existed was primarily determined by immediate self-interest. In these situations, the clan and gentile systems played a crucial role in fostering peaceful interactions. If a stranger belonged to a clan represented within the host tribe, members of that clan would often welcome him as a brother and extend their protection. Furthermore, the fear of disrupting trade, a cornerstone of civilized societies, also served as a deterrent to violence. While the initial impulse might be to seize the stranger’s goods or harm him, wiser members of the tribe recognized the potential consequences of jeopardizing future supplies. In the absence of any perceived benefit, the stranger might simply be ignored. Conversely, there are numerous accounts highlighting a profound ethical obligation to offer hospitality to those in need, with stories of misfortune befalling those who refused aid and good fortune rewarding those who offered assistance.
However, the dynamic shifted dramatically when an individual found themselves among a tribe too distant to elicit any hope of protection or fear of retribution. In such cases, the captive was often treated as a slave, particularly on the North Pacific Coast, where slavery was an established institution. A notable example is John Jewitt, who was enslaved by the Nootka Chief Maquinna in the early 19th century due to his valuable skills as an ironworker. Many other white individuals who fell into the hands of Native Americans along this coast experienced similar treatment. This article is about Indian Captives.
The majority of captives were those taken during warfare. These individuals were considered to have forfeited their lives and were, in essence, dead to their previous existence. It was often believed that the captive’s spiritual protector had been either destroyed or subjugated by the captor’s. While some captives were subjected to torture and death to satisfy the victor’s desire for revenge and to allow the captive to demonstrate their resilience, others were given the opportunity to be reborn through a process of adoption. This article is about Indian Captives.
Numerous accounts from white settlers who were taken captive by Native Americans reveal that the initial hardships they endured stemmed from the rapid movements of their captors, who sought to evade pursuers, and the constant threats to which they were subjected. However, these threats were rarely carried out unless the captives attempted to escape, were unable to keep pace with the group, or if the band was being pursued too closely. Each captive was considered the property of the individual who first seized them, and the character of that individual significantly influenced the extent of the captive’s suffering. This article is about Indian Captives.
When multiple individuals claimed ownership of a prisoner, the dispute was sometimes resolved by keeping the captive jointly, while in other cases, it was settled through torture and death. The rapid retreats of war parties were particularly challenging for women and children, although they were often shown a degree of consideration. Male captives might be allowed to assist them, or they might be transported on improvised sleds or travois. If horses were available, they might be provided for the women and children’s use. One documented instance describes a female captive’s child being carried by her master for several days. It is noteworthy that the honor of white women was generally respected among tribes east of the Mississippi River, while the opposite was often true west of that boundary, particularly on the plains, in the Columbia River region, and in the Southwest. This article is about Indian Captives.
Upon arriving at the village, the eastern tribes typically held a dance in which the captives were expected to participate prominently. They were often placed in the center of a circle of dancers, sometimes forced to sing and dance themselves, and in some cases, subjected to horrific tortures before being burned at the stake. Cannibalism was also documented in connection with these post-war dances. Among some tribes in Texas and Louisiana, the consumption of captives’ bodies appeared to be more than just an occasional occurrence. The Iroquois, some Algonquian tribes, and several western tribes forced prisoners to run between two lines of people armed with clubs, tomahawks, and other weapons. Those who managed to reach the chief’s house, a designated post, or another predetermined goal were spared, at least temporarily. Among many other tribes, a captive who successfully escaped and reached the chief’s residence was considered safe. Offering food to a visitor was generally regarded as extending the host’s protection. This article is about Indian Captives.
The experiences of the Spaniard Juan Ortiz, who was captured by the Florida Chief Utica in 1528, along with those of other white individuals, suggest that captives were sometimes held in a state of servitude. However, their lives were typically spared, as they were either held for ransom or adopted into the tribe. Some Siouan tribes eventually permitted their captives to either return home or settle among them, refraining from torture. While the practice of holding white prisoners for ransom among the eastern Indians dates back to early times, its origins in aboriginal customs are debatable. The ransoming or sale of captives, however, was common among the Plains Indians and southwestern tribes. Similarly, the practice of ransoming slaves on the North Pacific Coast predates European contact.
In most of North America, adoption was likely a more common practice than ransoming, particularly since many tribes reportedly disowned individuals who had been taken prisoner. Dealing with white captives in this way likely stemmed from the difficulty of integrating adult whites into Indian life and customs, whereas captives taken from other tribes often adapted more readily to their new surroundings. The primary purpose of adoption was to fill the void left by a deceased member of the tribe. According to one account, the adopted individual, regardless of their own character, was treated as if they possessed the character of their predecessor. John Gyles, who was captured by the Abenaki in 1689, recounts that a prisoner was brought out to be beaten and tortured during war dances unless their master paid a certain sum of property to prevent it. Women and children were generally spared and adopted. However, there are instances of white women being tortured to death, and it is said that the Ute tribe gave female captives from other Indian tribes to their women for torture. Conversely, male prisoners who had demonstrated exceptional bravery were sometimes released unharmed.
Among tribes with clan systems, the adoption of captured women held particular significance, as it often led to the formation of new clans from their descendants. This is believed to be the origin of the Zuni and Mexican clans among the Navajo. The Ute clan of the Navajo was formed through the systematic capture and purchase of Ute girls, who were valued for their basket-making skills. Among the Plains Indians, captives, particularly children, were sometimes taken specifically to be trained in the performance of certain ceremonial duties. In addition to the numerous white individuals who were captured by Native Americans and subsequently ransomed, accounts indicate that many of English, French, and Spanish descent were assimilated into the tribes of their captors. Whether due to being captured at a young age or developing a preference for their new life, these individuals never returned to their original communities.
Some even rose to positions of prominence, such as a Frenchman who became chief of the Attacapa, a Mexican who was considered the most successful war thief of the Comanche in 1855, and another Mexican who remained influential among the Zuni. The famed Comanche Chief Quanah Parker was the son of a captive American woman. During this period, the confederated tribes of Comanche, Kiowa, and Kiowa Apache held at least 50 adopted white captives, and it is estimated that at least one-third of the entire population had some degree of captive ancestry. The same was likely true, to a similar extent, of the Apache in Arizona.
From Oregon to southern Alaska, the existence of a slave class resulted in a different approach to dealing with captives. Slaves were considered the most valuable form of property, and the lives of those taken in war were generally spared, unless the captives had committed a grave offense against the victorious tribe, warranting immediate revenge. Even then, they might be killed by their masters at any time, although this fate rarely befell them until they became too old to work, unless their masters became embroiled in a property dispute or the people of the town from which they were taken had committed depredations.
Among the Tlingit, slaves were killed during mortuary feasts, and their bodies were thrown into the holes dug for the posts of a new house. Slave women, particularly those known to be of noble lineage, sometimes married their captors and gained their freedom. Four prominent Haida clans and one clan among the Tsimshian are said to have originated from such marriages. Another prominent Haida clan was known as "the Slaves," although it is unclear whether they were descended from slaves or whether the term was used ironically. It is doubtful that male slaves ever rose to positions of power due to the rigid caste system that prevailed in this region. A slave who escaped faced disgrace, which could only be overcome by expending a significant amount of property. However, one of the most influential Skidegate chiefs was said to have been enslaved in his youth. The historical topic of Indian Captives provides a glimpse into the complex interactions between Native American tribes and those they captured.