The Old Dominion – Settling Virginia
The allure of untold riches and vast empires, which once fueled the imaginations of 16th-century explorers, gradually gave way to a stark understanding of the challenges inherent in establishing settlements in the untamed and far-flung regions of the New World. The romantic era of discovery transitioned into the pragmatic age of colonization. The motivations driving thousands of Europeans to forsake their ancestral homes in the 17th century, braving the tumultuous Atlantic to settle along the banks of the James, Charles, Hudson, and St. Lawrence Rivers, mirrored the timeless human desires that have spurred migration throughout history: the pursuit of a better life and the yearning for greater freedom. These aspirations were significantly intensified by the transformative events that unfolded across Europe during the 16th century.
The initial impetus stemmed from the evolving social structure of Europe. The masses, who for centuries had toiled as serfs bound to the vast feudal estates of the nobility, were increasingly finding diverse opportunities as citizens of emerging national states. They became artisans and mechanics in burgeoning towns, independent tenant farmers cultivating their own land, and merchants and traders facilitating the flow of goods.
In essence, a middle class was forming, steadily accumulating wealth and influence. Simultaneously, the burgeoning military and administrative expenses of the monarchs, whose responsibilities expanded in tandem with their states, led to higher taxes and inflated land prices. The seemingly boundless expanse of virgin land in the New World offered a compelling escape for those burdened by economic hardship.
A second, equally significant factor was the Protestant Reformation, which swept across northern Europe in the 16th century, shattering the ecclesiastical authority of the Roman Church. State-sponsored churches were established in England, Germany, Scandinavia, and the Netherlands, with the rulers assuming the supreme religious authority previously held by the Pope. Dissent from the doctrines of these established churches was not only deemed religious heresy but also political treason. However, the very spirit of free inquiry and religious innovation that had fractured the unity of the Roman Church could not be contained by secular rulers. Individuals asserted their right to freedom of belief and worship, leading to the proliferation of diverse religious sects. Kings and princes attempted to suppress these dissenting groups, and the resulting persecution in Europe drove many religious refugees to seek sanctuary as colonists in the New World.
From the 17th to the 20th century, a relentless wave of immigration surged from Europe to America. By the early 1900s, less than half of the United States population consisted of native-born individuals with native-born parents. Yet, these immigrants did not transplant their homelands’ political and social institutions to American soil. Instead, they embraced America’s language, customs, and ideals with remarkable alacrity. Although Spain and France possessed or laid claim to the most significant portions of North America, the English settlements, initially confined to a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast, eventually absorbed the rest as they expanded westward to the Pacific. They established English civilization – English speech, English political ideals, English common law, English courts, local governments, English codes of manners, and standards of culture – as the foundation of American life. While the American Revolution severed the political ties with England, the cultural and institutional heritage ingrained over centuries could not be discarded. The new nation remained, in essence, a daughter country, having left the motherland’s roof to establish its own independent household. The story of The Old Dominion – Settling Virginia begins here.
The long and prosperous reign of Queen Elizabeth concluded in 1603, succeeded by James Stuart of Scotland on the throne of England. In 1606, King James authorized "certain loving subjects to deduce and conduct two colonies or plantations of settlers to America." The Stuart king commenced his reign with a grand declaration of peace with all his European neighbors. Consequently, although England claimed all of North America based on Cabot’s discovery in 1497, James restricted the territory granted to the new colonies to avoid encroaching upon the Spanish settlements in Florida or the French interests along the St. Lawrence River.
The powers of government granted to the new companies were as intricate as the territorial grants themselves. Each company was to have a council of 13 members in England, appointed by the king and subject to his control. This English council, in turn, was to appoint another council of 13 members to reside in each colony. Under the direction of a president, this colonial council was to manage local affairs, always subject to the authority of the English council, which ultimately answered to the king.
In May 1607, approximately 100 colonists dispatched by the London Company reached the shores of Virginia. Sailing several miles up a broad river, they established a settlement on a low-lying peninsula. They christened the river and the settlement James and Jamestown, respectively, in honor of the king. However, the colony struggled to prosper. The challenges faced by these settlers are a key element in understanding The Old Dominion – Settling Virginia.
The charter stipulated that harvests should be gathered into a common storehouse and then distributed to the settlers, inadvertently encouraging idleness and dependence on the industrious. Authority proved difficult to enforce with the cumbersome form of government, and the proprietors in England were too distant to effectively address the colonists’ needs. Exploring the land in search of gold and the rivers for a passage to Cathay proved more alluring to the settlers than cultivating corn. Furthermore, the unwholesome location of the town contributed to outbreaks of fever and malaria.
Had it not been for the extraordinary efforts of one man, Captain John Smith, the fledgling colony might not have survived. Smith arrived in Virginia after a remarkable and globe-trotting career as a soldier of fortune. His commanding presence quickly assumed leadership of the colony, despite the existing president and council. His courage and diplomacy in dealing with the Indians secured vital corn supplies for the starving settlers, and his unwavering energy inspired the diligent while intimidating the lazy and unjust. In his vivid accounts of early Virginia, penned in 1624, he readily acknowledged his own contributions to the colony, for he was not a man of modesty or reticence. However, his self-promotion does not diminish the value of his services. In the summer of 1609, he sustained a wound from a gunpowder explosion and returned to England. The early struggles and leadership of figures like John Smith define the narrative of The Old Dominion – Settling Virginia.
The winter following Captain John Smith’s departure became known as the horrific "starving time." Of the five hundred men present in the colony in October, only 60 remained alive by June. This frail remnant, seizing the opportunity presented by the arrival of ships from the Bermudas, resolved to abandon the settlement. With only a fortnight’s worth of provisions, hoping to reach Newfoundland, they bid farewell to the scene of their suffering and slowly descended the broad James River. However, upon reaching the mouth of the river, they sighted ships flying English flags. The new governor’s fleet, led by Lord de la Warre (Delaware), brought reinforcements and supplies. Thus, the Jamestown colony narrowly avoided the fate of Raleigh’s earlier attempts. De la Warre brought more than just food and recruits. The London Company had been reorganized in 1609, and the king granted a new charter, modifying the territory and government of Virginia.
From that point forward, a large and affluent corporation in England managed the company’s affairs without the king’s direct interference. Virginia was to have a governor appointed by the company. Under this new arrangement, the colony began to recover. Governor Dale’s strict but beneficial rule enforced order. The colonists, abandoning their pursuit of gold, turned their attention to agriculture and manufacturing. This turning point is crucial to understanding the success of The Old Dominion – Settling Virginia.
Tobacco emerged as the colony’s primary cash crop, and experiments were conducted to produce soap, glass, silk, and wine. A higher caliber of emigrants arrived, and in 1619, a shipload of "respectable maidens" was brought over, to be "auctioned" off to the bachelor planters in exchange for tobacco. Simultaneously, the practice of sharing harvests in common was discontinued, and settlers were granted full ownership of their land.
The year 1619, when wives arrived for the Virginians, also marked two events of profound significance for the future of the colonies and the nation: the arrival of the first cargo of enslaved Africans and the convening of the first representative assembly on American soil. On July 30, two citizens from each plantation convened with the governor and his six councilors in the small church at Jamestown. This nascent legislature, comprised of 27 members, enacted several laws for the colony before adjourning on August 4. While Spanish, French, and Dutch settlements existed in America at the time, none possessed or later adopted a system of representative government. Democracy was England’s enduring contribution to the New World.
The individual to whom Virginia owed this invaluable gift of self-government, and whose name deserves to be recognized and honored by every American, was Sir Edwin Sandys, treasurer of the London Company. Sandys belonged to the country party in Parliament, which frequently challenged James’s authoritarian rule based on the concept of "divine right," or accountability solely to God for his royal actions. Meanwhile, Gondomar, the Spanish minister in London, warned James that assemblies such as the one in Virginia were "hotbeds of sedition."
However, James had relinquished control of the London Company through the new charter. When he attempted to interfere in the election of their treasurer, they rebuffed him by choosing the Earl of Southampton, a prominent member of the country party. Unable to dictate to the company, James resolved to dismantle it. During a period of immense hardship for the colony, following a devastating Indian massacre in 1622 and a subsequent famine, James initiated legal action against the company. A compliant court declared that the company had exceeded its legal authority and forfeited its charter. James then assumed direct control of the colony, dispatching governors who were answerable only to his Privy Council. Virginia thus became a "royal province" in 1624, remaining so for 150 years until the American Revolution. The shift to a royal province had a lasting impact on The Old Dominion – Settling Virginia.
James intended to suppress the "seminary of sedition" and govern the colony through a committee of his courtiers. However, he died before he could extinguish the liberties of Virginia. His son, Charles I, hoping to gain a monopoly over the tobacco trade in exchange, permitted the House of Burgesses to continue. As a result, Virginia established a model that nearly all the American colonies eventually replicated: a governor with a small council appointed by the English king and a legislature, or assembly, elected by the colony’s inhabitants.
The people of Virginia exhibited strong loyalty to the Stuarts. When the conflict between the King and Parliament in England escalated into civil war in 1642, and Charles I was overthrown and beheaded in 1649, many of his supporters in England immigrated to Virginia, imbuing the colony with a distinctly aristocratic character. When Charles II was restored to his father’s throne in 1660, the Virginian citizens recognized his authority with such promptness and enthusiasm that he hailed them as "the best of his distant children."
He even elevated Virginia to the esteemed status of a "dominion" by incorporating its arms (the old seal of the Virginia Company) onto his royal shield alongside the arms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The Virginians took great pride in this distinction. Recalling their position as the oldest and most steadfast of the Stuart settlements in America, they adopted the moniker "The Old Dominion."
While numerous disputes arose between the governors appointed by the king and the legislature elected by the people, only one incident of major significance disrupted the peaceful history of the Old Dominion under its royal masters. In 1675, the Susquehannock Indians were raiding the upper settlements of the colony. Governor William Berkeley, benefiting personally from his involvement in the fur trade, refused to dispatch a militia to punish them. He was supported by an "old and rotten" House of Burgesses, which he had kept in power for 14 years, doing his bidding.
Nathaniel Bacon, a young and popular planter who had witnessed the murder of one of his overseers by Indians, rallied 300 volunteers and demanded an officer’s commission from Governor Berkeley. Berkeley refused, and Bacon marched against the Indians without a commission, decisively defeating them and saving the colony from further attacks.
The governor declared Bacon a rebel and placed a bounty on his head. In the ensuing civil war, the governor was driven from his capital, and Jamestown was burned by the "rebels." However, Bacon died of dysentery shortly after his victory, and his party, comprised largely of his personal followers, disintegrated. Berkeley returned and exacted harsh retribution on Bacon’s supporters until the citizens implored him to "spill no more blood."
Bacon’s Rebellion, despite its regrettable aspects, had positive consequences. It demonstrated that the colonists were willing to act independently. It forced the dissolution of the "old and rotten" assembly and the election of a new one representing the people’s will. It led to the recall of Governor Berkeley by King Charles II, who, upon hearing of the governor’s cruel reprisals, exclaimed indignantly, "That old fool has taken away more lives in that naked country than I did here for the murder of my father." Finally, it underscored that the people of the Old Dominion, while loyal to their king, had no intention of submitting to an arbitrary governor in collusion with a corrupt assembly. The legacy of Bacon’s Rebellion remains an important part of the story of The Old Dominion – Settling Virginia.
Today, historic Jamestown is part of Colonial National Historic Park. The park offers views of Old Towne, where English settlers constructed a triangular fort in the spring of 1607, and New Towne, east of the fort, which was first surveyed in the 1620s. Jamestown served as the capital of Virginia until 1699, when it was moved to Williamsburg.
The site, jointly administered by the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities and the National Park Service, is located at 1368 Colonial Parkway, Jamestown, Virginia.