American Indians and the American Revolution
The American Revolution, a pivotal moment in the formation of the United States, was not solely a conflict between colonists and the British Crown. It also deeply involved the American Indian nations, whose complex relationships with both sides shaped the course of the war and, ultimately, their own destinies. The Declaration of Independence famously accused King George III of inciting "merciless Indian Savages" against innocent settlers, a characterization that solidified a negative perception of American Indian involvement and justified their subsequent mistreatment in the eyes of many colonists. However, the reality was far more nuanced. Many tribes initially sought to remain neutral, while others allied with either the Americans or the British, each making strategic decisions based on their own interests and the perceived threat to their lands and way of life. Understanding the multifaceted role of American Indians and the American Revolution is crucial to grasping the full scope of this transformative period in American history.
The accusation leveled against the British monarch painted a picture of American Indians as mere pawns, easily manipulated into acts of violence against the colonists. This narrative, while convenient for justifying westward expansion and the displacement of native populations, ignores the agency and strategic thinking of American Indian leaders. For many, the decision to side with the British was not born of loyalty to the Crown, but rather out of a pragmatic assessment of which power offered the best chance of protecting their ancestral lands. The Royal Proclamation of 1763, which attempted to limit colonial expansion west of the Appalachian Mountains, provided a degree of security that the colonists, eager to acquire more land, seemed unwilling to offer. Thus, for many nations, aligning with the British was a calculated move to safeguard their territories and preserve their sovereignty. This nuanced understanding of American Indians and the American Revolution reveals the complexities of their motivations and challenges the simplistic portrayals often found in historical narratives.
The outbreak of the Revolution forced American Indian nations to carefully weigh their options. Some tribes, like certain bands of the Cherokee, had already experienced recurrent land losses and were frustrated by broken treaties. In 1776, driven by younger warriors who defied the authority of older, more cautious chiefs, they launched attacks on frontier settlements. However, these actions were met with swift and decisive retaliation by expeditions from Virginia, Georgia, and the Carolinas, resulting in significant defeats for the Cherokee. This experience highlights the internal divisions within some tribes and the varying perspectives on how best to respond to the growing threat of colonial encroachment. While some advocated for immediate military action, others favored diplomacy or neutrality, recognizing the potential consequences of engaging in a large-scale conflict.
In contrast to the Cherokee, other American Indian communities, particularly in New England, actively supported the American cause. The Stockbridge Indians, a mission town community in western Massachusetts, readily volunteered as minutemen, demonstrating their commitment to their colonial neighbors. They fought alongside George Washington at the Siege of Boston and served in various campaigns throughout New York, New Jersey, and Canada. This alliance underscores the diverse experiences of American Indian nations during the Revolution and challenges the notion of a monolithic "Indian" perspective. The Stockbridge Indians, having developed close ties with the colonists and embracing aspects of their culture, saw their interests as aligned with the American revolutionaries.
The American Indians and the American Revolution significantly impacted the Iroquois Confederacy, one of the most powerful and influential alliances in North America. The Confederacy, traditionally bound by a Great Law of Peace, found itself torn apart by the conflict. The Mohawk, led by the prominent leader Joseph Brant, remained steadfast in their long-standing alliance with the British. Eventually, the majority of the Cayuga, Onondaga, and Seneca also sided with the British, driven by a combination of factors, including historical ties, concerns about colonial expansion, and the persuasive influence of Brant. However, the Oneida and Tuscarora, influenced by the Presbyterian missionary Samuel Kirkland, chose to support the American cause. This division within the Iroquois Confederacy transformed the Revolution into a devastating civil war, pitting brother against brother and shattering the unity of the once formidable alliance.
The consequences of this internal conflict were particularly devastating for the Iroquois. In 1779, General John Sullivan led a punitive expedition through their territory, aiming to cripple their ability to wage war. Sullivan’s army systematically destroyed Iroquois villages, burning forty towns and decimating crops, leaving the Iroquois people destitute and displaced. This brutal campaign not only inflicted immense suffering on the Iroquois but also had long-lasting consequences for their political and social structures. The destruction of their communities and the loss of their traditional lands further weakened the Confederacy and contributed to its eventual decline. The saga of the American Indians and the American Revolution is a testament to the complexities and tragedies of war.
In the Ohio Country, leaders such as Guyashuta of the Seneca, Cornstalk of the Shawnee, and White Eyes of the Delaware initially sought to maintain a neutral stance, recognizing the potential dangers of aligning with either side. At the Treaty of Fort Pitt in 1778, the Delaware and Americans pledged "perpetual peace and friendship," a hopeful sign of peaceful coexistence. However, this fragile peace was shattered by the actions of American settlers, who murdered White Eyes and Cornstalk and, in a horrific act of violence, slaughtered unarmed Moravian Delaware noncombatants at the mission town of Gnadenhutten. These atrocities, fueled by racial prejudice and a thirst for land, irrevocably turned the Ohio Indians against the Americans, driving them into a common cause with the British. They achieved significant victories in the West, continuing their resistance even after Cornwallis’s surrender in the East, and persisting in their fight against American expansion for another twelve years after the Revolution.
The Treaty of Paris in 1783, which formally ended the American Revolution, proved to be a bitter disappointment for the American Indian nations. Without consulting or considering the interests of their American Indian allies, Britain ceded all its territory east of the Mississippi River, south of the Great Lakes, and north of Florida to the newly formed United States. This act of betrayal left American Indian nations vulnerable to further encroachment and dispossession. The United States, eager to expand westward, proceeded to acquire American Indian lands through treaties, often obtained through coercion and deception, and through military force. Even those tribes that had supported the Americans, such as the Stockbridge and Oneida, were not spared from land losses. The Seneca and Shawnee, who had fought against the Americans, faced even greater pressure and displacement.
The American Indians and the American Revolution is a poignant story that reveals how the American Indians fought for their own freedom and self-determination. Despite the Declaration of Independence’s negative portrayal of their role, American Indians were not simply pawns of the British Empire. They fought for their own liberties, for the protection of their homelands, and for the preservation of their way of life. However, the prevailing image of American Indian participation, as depicted in the Declaration of Independence, persisted, shaping public opinion and justifying the dispossession and expulsion of American Indian nations. The narrative that American Indians had sided with monarchy and tyranny allowed the new nation to feel justified in its actions, masking the true motives of land acquisition and the violation of American Indian sovereignty. The American Indians and the American Revolution reminds us that the pursuit of liberty for one group can come at the expense of another, and that a nation conceived in liberty must constantly strive to uphold those ideals for all its people.