1861-1865
The American Civil War, a tumultuous period spanning from 1861 to 1865, indelibly shaped the landscape of the United States, leaving an enduring mark on its political, social, and economic fabric. While the conflict raged primarily in the eastern states, its reverberations extended westward, significantly impacting the Santa Fe Trail. The trail, a vital artery of commerce and communication connecting the eastern settlements with the burgeoning communities of the Southwest, found itself entangled in the throes of the war, experiencing a surge in military activity and a shift in its operational dynamics.
The outbreak of the Civil War in April 1861 was the culmination of long-standing tensions between the North and the South, primarily concerning the issue of slavery and states’ rights. As the nation fractured, the Santa Fe Trail became a strategic asset for both the Union and the Confederacy. For the Union, it served as a crucial supply line for troops stationed in the West and a means of maintaining control over the territories of New Mexico, Colorado, and Kansas. Conversely, the Confederacy saw the trail as a potential avenue for territorial expansion, access to western resources, and diplomatic recognition from foreign powers. The years 1861-1865 became pivotal in determining the trajectory of the nation.
The significance of the Civil War along the Santa Fe Trail was largely confined to military affairs. The increase in the number of soldiers, escorts, patrols, and forts along the trail reflected the heightened security concerns during the conflict. Prior to the war, the Santa Fe Trail traversed portions of Missouri, Kansas, unorganized territory, Colorado Territory, and New Mexico Territory. The shifting allegiances and political divisions brought about by the war further complicated the management and control of the trail. The historical period of 1861-1865 defined the American Civil War, a time of great upheaval and consequence.
The Confederate ambition to expand its territory westward led to an invasion of New Mexico in early 1862. General Henry Hopkins Sibley led a force of 3,500 Confederate officers and men up the Rio Grande Valley, successfully occupying Albuquerque on March 8 and Santa Fe on March 11. This initial success, however, was short-lived. The Union recognized the strategic importance of Fort Union, a key installation located on the Santa Fe Trail near the convergence of the Cimarron and Mountain Routes, approximately 100 miles from Santa Fe. This fort was critical to the Union’s ability to resupply and reinforce its troops in the region, and its capture would have significantly bolstered Confederate efforts. The historical period of 1861-1865 marked a turning point for the nation as the Santa Fe Trail played a crucial role in shaping the outcome of the conflict in the West.
Lieutenant Colonel Edward Richard Sprigg Canby, recognizing the vulnerability of Fort Union in its original location near a mesa, ordered its relocation and reconstruction a mile into the valley. The newly rebuilt fort was a formidable "square-bastioned fortification with earthen breastworks extending outward from the square to form the shape of an eight-pointed star." To further strengthen the Union’s position, Governor William Gilpin of Colorado dispatched the First Regiment of Colorado Volunteers, commanded by Colonel John P. Slough, to reinforce the garrison at Fort Union. This regiment, consisting of ten companies and numbering 1,342 troops, marched from Fort Union toward Santa Fe on March 22, 1862.
The ensuing battles along the Santa Fe Trail proved decisive in thwarting Confederate ambitions. On March 26, Union forces, under the command of Major John M. Chivington, clashed with Confederate soldiers led by Major Charles L. Pyron in the Battle of Apache Canyon. This three-hour engagement resulted in a Union victory, marking the first defeat for the Confederate invaders in New Mexico. Two days later, on March 28, the opposing forces met again at Glorieta Pass, a narrow passage through the Sangre de Cristo Mountains that served as a vital segment of the Santa Fe Trail. The Battle of Glorieta Pass pitted 1,100 Confederate soldiers under Lieutenant Colonel William R. Scurry against 1,300 Union infantry, cavalry, and artillery led by Colonel John P. Slough. While the main battle resulted in a stalemate, a strategic maneuver by Major Chivington proved to be the turning point.
Chivington led a detachment of seven companies to attack the Confederate forces from the rear. In doing so, they stumbled upon and destroyed a poorly guarded Confederate supply train containing 73 wagons and hundreds of horses and mules. The loss of these vital supplies crippled the Confederate war effort in New Mexico. With limited provisions, dwindling resources, and facing the imminent arrival of reinforcements for the Union forces from the California Column under General James H. Carleton, the Confederates were forced to retreat southward into Texas.
The Battle of Glorieta Pass, also known as the Battle of Pigeon’s Ranch, may have been a relatively minor skirmish in the grand scheme of the Civil War, but its strategic significance cannot be overstated. It effectively dashed Confederate hopes of controlling New Mexico, securing access to western mining districts, and gaining a Pacific seaport. The impact of 1861-1865 was far-reaching, influencing not only the outcome of specific battles but also the overall trajectory of the war.
While the Confederate threat to New Mexico was neutralized, the Santa Fe Trail continued to be plagued by other challenges, particularly in Kansas. At least three of Kansas’s ten Civil War battles occurred near the Santa Fe Trail, highlighting the region’s vulnerability to Confederate sympathizers and pro-slavery raiders. On September 7, 1862, William Quantrill’s infamous raiders launched a daring night attack on Olathe, a small community on the Santa Fe Trail in eastern Kansas. The raiders rounded up male civilians and soldiers, killing many, stealing horses, looting property, and setting the town ablaze. This act of terror instilled panic along the Kansas border with Missouri.
A similar attack occurred on October 17, 1862, when the town of Shawnee, located southwest of Kansas City, was sacked and burned. Townspeople were held in the town square as raiders looted stores and set fire to buildings. The civilian population blamed General James Blunt for failing to provide adequate protection for the border communities. In May 1863, Dick Yeager led a group of 24 pro-slavery men on a raid of Diamond Spring, a town in Morris County situated more than 100 miles west of the Missouri border. The raiders returned to Missouri along the Santa Fe Trail, attacking and looting the communities of Rock Springs, Black Jack, Gardner, and Shawnee along the way.
The Battle of Westport, fought in October 1864, was one of the last and largest Civil War battles fought in the trans-Mississippi area. This decisive confrontation resulted in the defeat of General Sterling Price and his Confederate troops, effectively ending Confederate hopes of gaining control over Missouri. Governor Thomas C. Fletcher announced the restoration of civil law in Missouri on March 7, 1865, signaling the beginning of the end of the war in the region. The years of 1861-1865 reshaped the political and social landscape of the United States.
Despite the violence and disruption caused by the Civil War, the Santa Fe Trail remained a vital transportation route. However, the heightened insecurity along the trail, particularly in the early years of the war, prompted a temporary shift in the eastern terminus. From 1861 to 1863, the escalating violence between border ruffians in Missouri and Jayhawkers in Kansas forced the eastern terminus to move from Kansas City north to Fort Leavenworth. This move provided greater security for travelers and freighters, as the fort was less susceptible to attacks from pro-slavery forces. The Civil War years of 1861-1865 were a critical juncture in the nation’s history.
The Civil War also coincided with ongoing conflicts with Native American tribes along the Santa Fe Trail. The withdrawal of formally trained soldiers to fight in the East and the continued pressure from westward expansion contributed to increased tensions and hostilities. Rumors spread throughout Kansas that various Indian tribes were colluding with the Confederates to launch major uprisings. In reality, Native American resistance intensified during the war as tribes sought to protect their lands and resources from encroachment by Euro-Americans.
At the beginning of the Civil War, not all Plains Indians were considered a threat to Santa Fe Trail trade and traffic. In September 1861, American Indian agent Albert Boone secured an agreement between the Kiowa and Comanche tribes and the United States at Fort Wise. The tribes agreed to suspend all resistance in exchange for annuities issued by the US government. However, this agreement was short-lived, as the United States violated its terms, leading to renewed hostilities.
Attacks on caravans increased along the stretch of the trail from Walnut Creek to Cow Creek in May 1862. Captain Julius Hayden, stationed at Fort Larned, urged Brigadier General James G. Blunt to take prompt action to secure the route and prevent a full-scale Indian war. Reinforcements were sent to Fort Larned, and patrols were increased, effectively reducing the threat in that area. As tensions eased, Indian Agent S.G. Colley attributed the violence to travelers camping on Indian land and attempting to exploit them by buying Indian annuities for next to nothing.
By April 1864, interaction between Indians and trail travelers had once again erupted into open warfare. Cheyenne warriors attacked ranches along the Platte River and stole livestock. Throughout the spring and summer, other Plains tribes continued their efforts to close the trail, resulting in casualties, livestock losses, and the destruction of wagons and settlements. The historical period of 1861-1865 was a time of significant change and upheaval for the United States.
The escalating conflict prompted the establishment of additional military posts to provide escorts for wagon caravans. General Samuel R. Curtis established Fort Zarah on Walnut Creek in September 1864 to guard commerce and travelers along the Santa Fe Trail. Fort Ellsworth, later renamed Fort Harker, was also established to protect the Smoky Hill Trail, which linked the Santa Fe and Smoky Hill Trails. These military posts played a crucial role in maintaining the flow of goods and people along the Santa Fe Trail during the Civil War and the subsequent period of Indian resistance.
Despite reported willingness among some Native American tribes to enter into peace negotiations, US troops launched attacks on Kiowa, Arapaho, and Cheyenne encampments during the winter of 1864-65, including the infamous Sand Creek Massacre. These attacks further inflamed tensions and led to continued conflict between Indians, settlers, travelers, and the military.
By the end of the Civil War in 1865, over 20,000 troops were stationed in the West, tasked with protecting settlers and trade routes from both Indians and Confederates. Despite the challenges posed by the war, westward development continued. The transcontinental telegraph was completed in October 1861, and Congress passed a bill in July 1862 calling for the construction of a transcontinental railroad. While the Santa Fe Trail had survived the Civil War, it now faced a new threat: the imminent arrival of steel rails that would eventually replace wagons as the primary mode of transportation to Santa Fe. The impact of 1861-1865 continues to resonate in the historical narrative of the United States.