The French & Indian War
The mid-18th century witnessed a significant expansion of French influence across North America. With an ambition to control the continent’s vast resources and strategic waterways, France embarked on a calculated campaign to establish a network of settlements and fortifications. This endeavor, born of a desire to link their Canadian territories with those along the Gulf of Mexico, would ultimately ignite a fierce struggle with Great Britain, a conflict remembered as the French & Indian War.
France’s initial forays into the Mississippi Valley were ambitious, establishing outposts at remote locations. Settlements sprouted along the Great Lakes, the Wabash River, and at Kaskaskia in present-day Illinois. Their presence extended across the Mississippi River, encompassing St. Genevieve and St. Louis in what is now Missouri. Further south, they established footholds on the Gulf Coast, founding Biloxi in Mississippi and Mobile in Alabama. New Orleans, strategically positioned on the lower Mississippi, became a crucial hub for French commerce and governance.
The French strategy centered on creating a line of fortified posts connected by water routes, forming a vast arc behind the existing English settlements. This network would serve as both a trade artery and a defensive barrier. Their fortifications gradually extended south of Lake Erie, with key locations including Presque Isle (near modern Erie, Pennsylvania), Le Boeuf on French Creek in northwest Pennsylvania, and the strategically vital site at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers, where present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, stands. The French recognized the immense military advantages of this location. It commanded trade routes, exerted influence over the Ohio River and Great Lakes tribes, and provided a seamless link between the southern Canadian posts and the settlements along the Wabash, Illinois, and lower Mississippi Rivers.
These ambitious moves by France did not go unnoticed by the English, who viewed them with growing alarm. The English recognized the French were essentially monopolizing the resources of the Upper Louisiana territory. They, too, coveted access to this fertile land and its potential riches. The English asserted their claim, citing the voyages of the Cabots as justification for expanding their settlements westward to the Pacific Ocean. The French, in turn, defended their claim to the Mississippi Valley, emphasizing their prior exploration and colonization of the region, and arguing that the English should remain confined to the lands east of the Allegheny Mountains.
Amidst these competing claims, a critical perspective was often overlooked: the rights of the indigenous peoples. An Indian chief poignantly observed, "The French claim all the country to the west, and the English all to the east and west; where, then, is the country of the Indians?" This question highlighted the fundamental injustice at the heart of the conflict, a question that remained unanswered throughout the French & Indian War.
Initially, the Native American tribes, despite their inherent stake in the land, were drawn into the conflicts of the European powers. Both sides sought to secure their allegiance, often with little regard for the tribes’ own interests. This proved advantageous for the French, whose Canadian population numbered only 45,000, while Louisiana held a mere 7,000 white inhabitants. The English colonies, in stark contrast, boasted a population exceeding one million.
The stage was now set for a clash between these two empires. An event would soon trigger the conflict. The Ohio Company, comprised of investors from Virginia and England, obtained a grant from the British crown for 600,000 acres of land in the disputed territory claimed by both England and France. The company’s objectives were both commercial and territorial, intending to establish trading posts and survey the land to maximize the benefits of their charter.
News of this perceived encroachment on French territory reached the Governor of Canada, who promptly issued warnings to the governors of New York and Pennsylvania. He declared that English traders were trespassing on French lands and threatened to seize them if their activities did not cease. When his warnings were ignored, he acted on his threats, arresting the company’s employees and imprisoning them at Presque Isle on Lake Erie, where he also erected a formidable fort. Simultaneously, the French established a supply line from Presque Isle, along French Creek and the Allegheny River, to the Ohio River, with troops stationed at regular intervals to protect against attack.
This military activity directly impacted the territory granted to the Ohio Company, which was considered part of Virginia. The lieutenant governor of Virginia brought the matter before the Assembly and dispatched a young officer named George Washington, then only 21 years old, to deliver a letter to Monsieur de St. Pierre, the commander of the French forces on the Ohio River. Washington’s mission was to demand the withdrawal of French forces from the territories claimed by Great Britain. St. Pierre responded politely but firmly, stating that he had taken possession of the land under orders from his superior officer, Governor Duquesne, to whom he would forward the letter. He made it clear, however, that he could not comply with the demand to withdraw. This diplomatic failure marked a significant escalation in the tensions leading up to the French & Indian War.
In 1754, Virginia began preparations to assert British claims. A regiment was dispatched to defend the frontier. Washington, leading a small detachment, encountered a French and Indian party exhibiting hostile intentions. A skirmish ensued, resulting in the death of the French commander, Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, and ten of his men.
Washington’s initial goal had been to prevent the French from occupying a strategic location at the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers, where the Ohio Company had sent a party of militia and laborers. However, upon arrival, Washington’s men discovered that the French had already driven away the Ohio Company’s workforce and constructed a strong fort at the site, named Fort Duquesne. Anticipating a swift French retaliation following the Jumonville affair, Washington hastily constructed a small stockade at Great Meadows, near Uniontown, Pennsylvania, which he christened Fort Necessity. There, he was soon attacked and forced to capitulate on honorable terms after a valiant defense.
The British government viewed this action as the formal commencement of hostilities by the French, and reinforcements were immediately dispatched from England. Among the planned military campaigns was an expedition led by General Edward Braddock against Fort Duquesne, situated on the site of present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Battle of the Monongahela
British Major General Edward Braddock arrived in North America in early 1755 with two regiments of seasoned English troops. At Fort Cumberland, Maryland, he was joined by a large contingent of provincial troops to assist in the planned capture of Fort Duquesne. Braddock divided his forces and advanced with approximately 1,200 men through dense forests and across rugged mountains. Colonel George Washington, serving as a volunteer aide to Braddock, had been initially delayed due to illness. He rejoined the General on the evening of July 8, at the mouth of the Youghiogheny River, just 15 miles from Fort Duquesne, the day before the fateful battle.
The British officers and soldiers were filled with enthusiasm and confident of a swift victory at Fort Duquesne. On the morning of July 9, the army crossed the river just below the mouth of the Youghiogheny and marched along the southern bank of the Monongahela River.
Washington later recounted that the spectacle of the British troops that morning was the most magnificent he had ever witnessed. Each soldier was impeccably dressed in full uniform, arranged in precise columns, and marched in perfect formation. The sun glinted off their polished weapons, the river flowed peacefully to their right, and the dense forest cast a somber shadow on their left. Both officers and men were equally buoyed by optimism and anticipation of victory.
The army continued its march until noon, reaching the second crossing point, ten miles from Fort Duquesne. After a brief pause, they began to ford the river and regain its northern bank. Upon crossing, they found themselves on a level plain, rising slightly above the river, extending northward for nearly half a mile. The plain gradually ascended, culminating in hills of considerable height. The road from the fording point to Fort Duquesne traversed the plain, ascended the hills, and continued through an uneven, heavily forested terrain.
The order of march placed 300 men under Colonel Thomas Gage in the vanguard, followed immediately by another 200 soldiers. General Braddock, with the artillery columns, the main body of the army, and the baggage train, followed behind. By approximately one o’clock, the entire force had crossed the river. At that moment, a barrage of gunfire erupted on the advanced parties, who were ascending the hill about a hundred yards from the edge of the plain. A devastating volley of musketry struck their front, marking their first awareness of the enemy’s presence, quickly followed by a second volley on their right flank. The British troops were thrown into chaos, as the enemy remained hidden and the gunfire seemed to emanate from an invisible source. They returned fire, but aimlessly and without effect.
Throughout the engagement, Colonel George Washington, then 23 years old, displayed extraordinary courage and composure. With the other two aides-de-camp wounded, he was solely responsible for delivering the general’s orders. He rode in every direction, a conspicuous target for the enemy’s sharpshooters. Four bullets pierced his coat, and two horses were shot from under him, yet he escaped unharmed. The battle was exceptionally bloody. Of the 1,200 British soldiers, 714 were killed or wounded. Over two-thirds of the 86 officers suffered the same fate. Braddock himself was mortally wounded by a provincial soldier named Fausett. The enemy, in contrast, suffered only about 40 casualties, having fought from concealed positions in deep ravines, allowing the English bullets to pass harmlessly overhead.
Overwhelmed by panic, the remnants of Braddock’s army fled in disarray toward Fort Cumberland. The enemy did not pursue them. Satiated with bloodshed and plunder, the Native American warriors could not be enticed to leave the battlefield. The French & Indian War continued to rage across the land.
Indian spies had been closely monitoring Braddock’s army since its departure from Fort Cumberland. The garrison at Fort Duquesne was no match for the British force, and the French commandant had considered retreat or surrender. However, a contingent of 400 to 500 Indians happened to be present at the fort. A junior officer, Captain Daniel Beaujeau, vehemently argued that some form of resistance was necessary to preserve the honor of the French army. Beaujeau consulted with the Indians, who volunteered approximately 400 warriors. After much persuasion, Beaujeau obtained permission from his commander to lead a limited sortie, and a mere 30 French soldiers volunteered to join the desperate mission. With this force of 430 men, the courageous Frenchman marched out to confront an enemy more than three times their size. Meanwhile, General Braddock had dismissed the warnings of Washington and other colonial officers and advanced into the ambush, leading to the near annihilation of his army.
News of the victory was met with jubilation by the commandant at Fort Duquesne. He embraced Captain Beaujeau and lavished him with praise. However, when the dispatches reporting the victory reached the Governor of Canada, they contained serious accusations against Beaujeau, alleging misconduct in his role as paymaster and other equally damning charges. Beaujeau was tried, stripped of his rank, and his reputation ruined. The injustice remained unaddressed until, during the American Revolution, Washington recounted the events surrounding Braddock’s defeat to Lafayette. Lafayette, shocked by the story, vowed to rectify what he considered a national act of cruelty. Upon his return to Europe, he initiated inquiries to locate Beaujeau. He found him impoverished and broken, suffering from the weight of years and undeserved disgrace. Lafayette brought the matter before the French government, and when the true circumstances were revealed, Beaujeau was reinstated to his rank and honors.
The outcome of the Battle of the Monongahela gave the French and their Native American allies a significant advantage on the Ohio River, halting British advances west of the mountains for several years. In 1757, the Shawnee, Cherokee, and Iroquois tribes, allied with the French, raided frontier settlements on the eastern side of the mountains. In the same autumn, the English constructed Fort Loudon in eastern Tennessee. The following year, Colonel James Burd erected another fort on the Holston River, approximately 100 miles to the north. Settlements grew around both of these outposts.
Grant’s Defeat
In 1758, the English launched a large-scale effort to capture French outposts. In July, an army of 7,000 men under General John Forbes departed Carlisle, Pennsylvania, with the objective of seizing Fort Duquesne. Around mid-September, the advance guard, led by Colonel Henry Boquet, reached Loyalhanna, Pennsylvania. From there, Major James Grant was dispatched to reconnoiter with 800 Highland Scots and 200 Virginians under Major Andrew Lewis, who would later command at the Battle of Point Pleasant in present-day West Virginia.
As they approached the fort undetected, Major Grant believed he could surprise the garrison and deny General Forbes the glory of capturing the fort. Major Lewis protested against the folly of the attempt, but Grant, driven by ambition, ordered Lewis and his Virginians to remain behind with the baggage. Early in the morning, Major Grant and his Scottish Highlanders advanced to the attack, beating drums on Grant’s Hill (now part of Pittsburgh). This brazen act alerted the Native Americans, who numbered around 1,400 and were positioned on the opposite side of the river. Grant was quickly surrounded. Major Lewis, realizing that Grant was outnumbered, rushed to the rescue with his Virginians, attacking the rear of the Indian forces. This allowed Grant and some of his men to retreat, but Lewis’s party was overwhelmed. The English suffered heavy losses, with over one-third of their force killed. Grant and Lewis were taken prisoner. The remnants of the detachment were saved largely through the bravery of Captain Bullet of the Virginia Provincials, the only officer who escaped unharmed. The French & Indian War took a heavy toll.
While stationed at Loyalhanna with the advance guard, Colonel Boquet was attacked twice by the French and Indians, but successfully repelled them, suffering only 67 casualties. The entrenchment he constructed at that location was later named Fort Ligonier.
In November, the commandant of Fort Duquesne, unable to withstand the approaching force under General John Forbes, destroyed the fort and retreated down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers to New Orleans. During his retreat, he established Fort Massac on the Ohio River, approximately 40 miles from its mouth, in the Illinois country. General Forbes rebuilt Fort Duquesne and renamed it Fort Pitt, which later became the thriving city of Pittsburgh.
The English now controlled the entire Upper Ohio River region. In the spring of 1759, they established posts on the eastern side of the Ohio River, including Fort Burd, on the site of Brownstown, Pennsylvania, later known as Redstone Old Fort. They also gained possession of Presque Isle, Detroit, and other French posts in the region.
While these events unfolded in the west, the English achieved significant victories in the north. Ticonderoga, Crown Point, Fort Niagara, and Quebec were captured in 1759. The following year, Montreal fell, along with the entirety of Canada. By the Treaty of Paris in 1763, France relinquished all claims to Canada and the western territories east of the Mississippi River to Great Britain. France ceded her claims to all lands west of the Mississippi River to Spain. The French & Indian War dramatically changed the landscape of North America.