Native American Women in History

By Frederick Webb Hodge in 1906

“The Elders say the men should look at women in a sacred way. The men should never put women down or shame them in any way. When we have problems, we should seek their counsel. We should share with them openly. A woman has intuitive thought. She has access to another system of knowledge that few men develop. She can help us understand. We must treat her in a good way.”

-Native Wisdom

For centuries, the roles and status of Native American Women in History have been a subject of both fascination and misunderstanding. One of the most pervasive and inaccurate beliefs surrounding these women is the notion that they were universally the subservient slaves and drudges of the men in their tribes, both before and after marriage. While this may have been true in some isolated instances, particularly among tribes with rudimentary social structures and non-agricultural economies, it represents a gross oversimplification of a far more nuanced reality.

The standing of women in the diverse societies of Native American tribes north of Mexico was a complex tapestry woven from threads of climate, habitat, mythology, economic realities, and the intricate character of their social and political organizations. To truly understand the position of Native American Women in History, one must delve into the multifaceted influences that shaped their lives.

A key element in deciphering the role of women lies in examining the mythology and religious beliefs of each tribe. Modern mythological research reveals a profound connection between a people’s social, ceremonial, and governmental principles and the nature of their deities. In tribes where goddesses held prominent positions in the pantheon, it is generally safe to assume that women were held in high esteem and wielded a degree of authority. Similarly, in tribes with clan-based governance, where societal structure mirrored familial relationships, women often held fundamental rights that underpinned tribal society and government. The presence and prominence of female deities often mirrored the real-world influence and respect afforded to Native American Women in History.

Ethical teachings and observances, rather than stemming directly from religious views, were often rooted in the principles and institutions that fostered peace, harmony, and prosperity within the community. These underlying principles, often shaped by the wisdom and influence of women, played a crucial role in defining the overall status of Native American Women in History.

It is also vital to differentiate between women who were members of the tribe and those who were not. Among most tribes, the rights to life, liberty, and well-being were reserved for women who were either born into the tribe or formally adopted. Women from outside the tribe were often denied these considerations, except in times of conflict when their potential as mothers might spare them from indiscriminate slaughter. Even then, they were expected to fight alongside their male counterparts, facing the same dangers and demonstrating equal patriotism. The distinction between insider and outsider heavily influenced the treatment and respect afforded to women, emphasizing the importance of tribal affiliation in determining the lives of Native American Women in History.

Within the tribes, a clear division of labor and responsibility existed between the sexes. This division, however, should not be misinterpreted as a sign of male tyranny but rather as an effective adaptation to the demands of survival. The man’s primary duty was to protect and provide for his family, hunting game, crafting weapons and tools, and constructing shelters. These tasks required strength, skill, and often long periods away from home, facing the perils of the hunt, the warpath, and the elements. The contributions of men were essential for the survival and protection of their families and communities, requiring resilience and adaptability in the face of harsh conditions.

Conversely, the woman’s domain was the home and everything directly related to it. In addition to sharing some activities with men, women were responsible for tanning hides, weaving fabrics, crafting mats, baskets, and pottery, sewing, dyeing, gathering and storing food, and preparing meat. On the move, they were tasked with carrying the camp equipment and family belongings, assisted by children and those unable to participate in hunting or warfare. This division of labor, while seemingly rigid, was in reality a carefully balanced system designed to maximize the well-being and survival of the entire community. The women’s role in maintaining the home and providing essential resources was crucial to the sustenance and stability of tribal life. Understanding this division is key to appreciating the complexities faced by Native American Women in History.

The underlying principle behind this division of labor was not oppression but rather the most effective allocation of resources to ensure the survival and prosperity of the community. It was a system finely tuned to the specific conditions of life among the North American Indians, a system that emphasized cooperation and mutual dependence between men and women. This division, reinforced by customs, rites, and superstitious beliefs, further solidified the roles of men and Native American Women in History.

For example, the act of sowing seeds was often exclusively performed by women, based on the belief that their inherent connection to reproduction and increase would ensure a more bountiful harvest. This demonstrates how deeply ingrained the association between women and fertility was in many tribes, shaping their roles in agriculture and ensuring the continued prosperity of the community.

However, historical accounts offer conflicting perspectives. Lewis and Clark described Shoshone husbands as having absolute power over their wives and daughters, able to dispose of them at will. Similarly, fur traders and explorers like Daniel Williams Harmon and W.L. Hardesty portrayed the women of various tribes as beasts of burden, subjected to heavy toil and treated with little respect. Henry Rowe Schoolcraft recounted stories of Cree mothers killing their female infants to spare them from lives of misery. These accounts paint a starkly different picture, highlighting the potential for exploitation and hardship faced by some Native American Women in History.

Yet, other accounts offer a more balanced view. Samuel de Champlain noted that Huron and Algonquian women, while burdened with carrying baggage and tending to fields, also held considerable responsibility in managing the household, cultivating land, and preparing food. Despite the hardships they faced, these women were often strong and capable, playing a vital role in the economic and social life of their communities. The varied experiences described by different observers highlight the complexity and diversity of the lives of Native American Women in History.

The duties of Ottawa and Chippewa women were extensive, encompassing everything from fetching water and firewood to spinning fibers, tanning hides, and manufacturing clothing and household goods. They were aided in these tasks by children, dependents, and even older men, demonstrating a communal approach to labor and a recognition of the value of everyone’s contribution. These women were not merely drudges but skilled artisans and essential contributors to the economic well-being of their families.

On the Northwest Coast, where the sea was the primary source of sustenance, women played a crucial role in gathering seaweed, shellfish, and berries, preparing them for consumption and storage. They also worked extensively with cedar, weaving its bark into clothing and ropes, and crafting baskets and mats. These women were resourceful and skilled, adapting to the unique environment of the coast and utilizing its resources to provide for their communities.

Frederick Webb Hodge noted that among the Pueblo Indians, monogamy was the norm, and women held a higher status than in many other tribes. Descent was traced through the mother, and the home belonged to her, granting her considerable power and autonomy. Labor was equitably divided, and women cultivated gardens, carried water, and made pottery, while men assisted with heavier tasks like house-building and blanket weaving. Matilda Coxe Stevenson further emphasized the high status of Zuni women, noting their role in agriculture, their membership in religious societies, and their inheritance of land. These accounts demonstrate the significant role women played in the social and economic life of Pueblo and Zuni communities.

Among the Iroquois and similar tribes, women controlled many of the fundamental institutions of society. They had a voice in tribal policies, managed the public treasury, and held positions of leadership, even serving as regents in the absence of male chiefs. The penalties for killing a woman were often double those for killing a man, reflecting the recognition of their vital role in perpetuating the clan. These examples illustrate the power and influence that women could wield in certain Native American societies, challenging the notion of universal female subservience.

However, the experiences of Native American Women in History varied widely across different tribes and regions. Stephen Powers noted that among the Yokut of California, husbands had the power of life and death over their wives, although this power may have been limited to specific circumstances. Captain John Smith described Virginia Indian women as performing the majority of the work within the lodge, while men focused on hunting and warfare. Despite their heavy workload, these women were not driven like slaves but performed their duties willingly, tracing descent through the mother.

John Lawson’s account of North Carolina natives described a society where women with many children were highly esteemed and supported by the community, suggesting a more egalitarian relationship between men and women. William Bartram observed that among the Cherokee and Creek, women performed less field work than men, while Hernando de Soto encountered a female ruler on the Savannah River, indicating that women could hold positions of power and influence.

Ultimately, the authority of the Indian husband over his wife was not as absolute as some observers have suggested. While married women owed certain duties and obligations to their husbands, they also enjoyed a degree of independence and were often treated with consideration and deference. In some tribes, women were equal to their husbands, while in others, they held a superior position.

Most tribes respected a woman’s control over her own body, requiring her consent or that of her family for marriage. Even captive women were often treated with respect, as evidenced by accounts of Mary Rowlandson’s captivity among the Narraganset and General James Clinton’s tribute to the Iroquois for their respect for female prisoners. However, violations did occur, and perpetrators were often punished severely.

Women who practiced seduction among the Sioux and Yuchi risked severe retaliation from the aggrieved women and girls, highlighting the importance placed on female autonomy and the right to control one’s own body. Among the Navajo, the husband had limited authority over his wife, even if he had paid a bride price.

The status of Native American Women in History was also influenced by their menstrual cycle and pregnancy, which were often considered periods of heightened spiritual power. During these times, women were often subject to taboos and segregation, but these practices did not necessarily diminish their overall status in society.

In some instances, women excelled in traditionally male vocations, such as hunting, fishing, and warfare, or gained notoriety as sorceresses. While the institution of maternal descent may have contributed to the social status of women, economic factors, such as the cultivation of the soil, likely played a more significant role in fostering independence and authority.

In conclusion, accurately determining the true status of Native American Women in History requires a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the activities, relationships, and institutions of each tribe. Historical accounts, while valuable, are often incomplete and subjective, making it difficult to draw definitive conclusions. However, it is clear that among sedentary and agricultural communities, women enjoyed a significant degree of independence and authority, commensurate with their contribution to the community’s sustenance.

Compiled and edited by Kathy Alexander, updated January 2023.

About the Article: The majority of this historic text was published in the Handbook of American Indians, written by Frederick Webb Hodge and published in 1906. Hodge (1864-1956) was an editor, anthropologist, archaeologist, and historian who published more than 350 items, including books, monographs, and articles in scientific and historical journals. In addition to his research, excavations, and writing activities, he was employed by the Smithsonian Institution, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Museum of the American Indian in New York City and served as a member and officer of several organizations. Though the essence of his article is essentially intact, the text that appears on this page is far from verbatim, as additions, updates, and editing has occurred for clarity and ease for the modern reader.

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“The Old Ones say the Native American women will lead the healing among the tribes. Inside them are the powers of love and strength given by the Moon and the Earth. When everyone else gives up, it is the women who sings the songs of strength. She is the backbone of the people. So, to our women we say, sing your songs of strength; pray for your special powers; keep our people strong; be respectful, gentle, and modest.”

– Village Wise Man, Lakota Sioux