Powhatan Tribe – Dominating Virginia in History
The Powhatan Tribe, also known historically as Powatan and Powhatan, holds a significant place in the annals of early American history. This Virginia Indian tribe held dominion over the eastern region of Virginia when English settlers first arrived and established Jamestown in 1607. Their very name, "Powhatan," is thought to signify "falls in a current of water," a testament to their intimate connection with the rivers and waterways that defined their territory.
At the dawn of European colonization in the Chesapeake Bay area, the Powhatan Tribe commanded a substantial presence, with an estimated population of 14,000 to 21,000 individuals. These people were organized into approximately 200 villages strategically located along the region’s rivers. Linguistically, they were identified as Virginia Algonquian, as their language belonged to the eastern Algonquian language family and was known as Powhatan.
The late 16th and early 17th centuries witnessed the rise of a paramount chief named Wahunsunacawh. He was a visionary leader who forged a powerful confederation by uniting around 30 tribes. This alliance not only included the Powhatan people but also encompassed other significant groups such as the Arrohateck, Appomattoc, Pamunkey, Mattaponi, and Chiskiack tribes. This unified entity became known as the Powhatan Confederacy. Wahunsunacawh’s influence and authority were so profound that the English colonists came to refer to him simply as "Chief Powhatan." While each tribe within the Confederacy retained its own chieftain, all were obligated to pay tribute to Chief Powhatan, acknowledging his supreme leadership. The Powhatan Tribe was at the center of this confederacy.
The geographical boundaries of the Powhatan Confederacy encompassed a vast territory. It included the tidewater region of Virginia, stretching from the Potomac River in the north down to the division between the James River and Albemarle Sound in the south. Inland, their domain extended as far as the falls of the major rivers, near present-day Fredericksburg and Richmond. Moreover, the Powhatan also held sway over the Virginia counties situated east of the Chesapeake Bay, and it is plausible that their influence extended to some tribes in the lower regions of Maryland. The Powhatan Tribe controlled vital waterways and resources.
Before the establishment of Jamestown, the Powhatan Tribe had already encountered European explorers. In 1570, Spanish Jesuits attempted to establish a mission within their territory, although it proved short-lived. Fifteen years later, the southern tribes came to the attention of the English settlers at Roanoke Island, but substantive knowledge about them remained limited until the founding of the Jamestown settlement in 1607.
The Powhatan people were not solely reliant on hunting and gathering for sustenance. They were also skilled agriculturalists, cultivating a variety of crops. Maize, beans, melons, pumpkins, roots, and two or three kinds of fruit trees formed the basis of their agricultural practices. Their dwellings, typically oblong houses with rounded roofs, varied in length, sometimes reaching up to 36 yards. For protection, many of their towns were fortified with palisades – defensive walls constructed from posts planted firmly in the ground, standing 10 to 12 feet high. In situations demanding heightened security, a triple stockade would be erected. These protective walls might encircle an entire town, or they might enclose only the chief’s residence, the burial house, and other significant dwellings.
The religious beliefs of the Powhatan centered on a pantheon of minor deities. They worshipped elements of nature that could potentially cause them harm, such as fire, water, lightning, and thunder. The chieftainship was hereditary, but followed a matrilineal system. The position passed first to the chief’s brothers, if any, and then to the male descendants of his sisters, never directly through the male line.
The early interactions between the English settlers and the Powhatan were often marked by violence and exploitation on both sides. However, leaders on both sides recognized the potential benefits of peaceful coexistence. The marriage of Chief Powhatan’s daughter, Pocahontas, to English settler John Rolfe in 1614 ushered in a period of relative peace. Unfortunately, this peace was short-lived. With the death of Pocahontas in 1617, followed by the death of Chief Powhatan a year later, the fragile tranquility dissolved.
Upon the death of Chief Powhatan, his brother Opechancanough assumed leadership. Unlike his predecessor, Opechancanough harbored deep animosity toward the English colonists and began secret preparations for a widespread uprising. On March 22, 1622, the Powhatan launched a coordinated attack along the entire frontier. In a matter of hours, 347 English settlers were killed, and nearly every settlement was destroyed, with the exception of those immediately surrounding Jamestown, where the colonists had received advance warning.
The English responded with a campaign of extermination against the Powhatan. The colonial authorities ordered three expeditions to be undertaken annually, with the aim of preventing the Powhatan from planting crops or rebuilding their homes. Commanders were forbidden from making peace under any circumstances. On one occasion, a large number of Powhatan were lured back to their villages with promises of peace, only to be massacred, and their homes burned. A second attempt at this ruse proved unsuccessful. The war raged for 14 years, until both sides were exhausted, and peace was finally established in 1636. The most significant battle occurred in 1625 at Pamunkey, where Governor Francis Wyatt led English forces to victory over nearly 1,000 Powhatan warriors, destroying their principal village.
Peace was again shattered in the spring of 1644 when Opechancanough orchestrated one final uprising, resulting in the deaths of 300-500 colonists. This time, however, Opechancanough was captured. While imprisoned at Jamestown, he was shot by a guard and subsequently died from his wounds. His death marked the disintegration of the Powhatan Confederacy, and the constituent tribes were forced to negotiate separate peace treaties. They were confined to reservations, which were continually reduced in size through sale or confiscation on flimsy pretexts.
Around 1656, the Cherokee from the mountains encroached upon the lowlands. The Pamunkey chief, along with 100 of his warriors, allied themselves with the English to resist the invasion. Almost all were killed in a fierce battle on Shocco Creek near Richmond. By 1669, the Powhatan population in the region had dwindled to approximately 1,800, and by 1722, many of the tribes that had once comprised the vast empire of Chief Powhatan were reported to be extinct.
In 1675, some Conestoga, displaced from their territory on the Susquehanna River by the Iroquois, entered Virginia and committed acts of depredation. The Virginian tribes were wrongly accused of these actions, prompting unauthorized expeditions led by Nathaniel Bacon. These expeditions resulted in the deaths of numerous Powhatan and the destruction of their villages. Eventually, the Powhatan gathered in a fort near Richmond and prepared to defend themselves. In August 1676, the fort was stormed, and the English massacred men, women, and children. The nearby stream became known as Bloody Run in commemoration of this event. The surviving Powhatan sought peace, which was granted on the condition of an annual tribute from each village.
In 1722, a treaty was brokered at Albany, New York, through which the Iroquois agreed to cease their attacks on the Powhatan tribes. Four Powhatan chiefs represented their people at the conference. The Treaty of Albany effectively marked the end of the Powhatan tribes’ significant historical presence, and the remnants of the confederacy gradually dwindled to near extinction.
Around 1705, the Powhatan were described as "almost wasted." At that time, they had 12 villages, eight of which were located on the Eastern Shore. Pamunkey was the only village of consequence, with a population of about 150. Those on the Eastern Shore remained until 1831, when the few surviving individuals, having intermarried with African Americans to the point of being virtually indistinguishable, were driven off during the unrest caused by Nat Turner’s slave rebellion. Some had previously joined the Nanticoke.
Despite the hardships and adversity, the Powhatan have endured. Today, eight Powhatan Indian-descended tribes are recognized by the State of Virginia. Most of these tribes are actively seeking Federal recognition. Another band, known as the Powhatan Renape, maintains official headquarters in New Jersey and is also recognized by the state.
While the original Powhatan language has been lost over time, the descendants of the Powhatan Tribe now speak English. However, efforts are currently underway to reconstruct their ancestral language, seeking to revitalize a vital part of their cultural heritage.