The Plains Indians – Surviving With the Buffalo
“While the vast herds of buffalo, deer, elk, and antelope remained, they were sure of food and clothing. They were, however, soon to be deprived of their abundant riches. The wave of civilization was moving over the Western horizon. Its onward march was irresistible. No human hand could stay that rolling tide of progress. The pale faces moved over every divide; they cordelled or pushed their boats up every river. They entered every valley and swarmed over every plain. They traveled in wagons and prairie schooners on foot or horseback. Herding their little bands and flocks of domestic stock, they built their homes on every spot of ground that could be made productive. One great cause of disaffection among the Indians was the destruction of their vast herds of buffalo, which seemed like a ruthless sacrifice.”
– Nelson Miles, Personal Recollections and Observations, 1896
The vast expanse of the North American continent, stretching between the Mississippi River and the imposing Rocky Mountains, and spanning from the southern reaches of Canada to the northern territories of Mexico, was once home to a diverse collection of indigenous peoples known collectively as the Plains Indians. This designation encompasses a multitude of distinct tribes, each with its own unique culture, language, and traditions, yet all sharing a profound connection to the land and a reliance on the majestic American buffalo.
The Plains Indians were not a monolithic entity but rather a tapestry of societies adapted to the challenges and opportunities presented by their environment. These tribes can be broadly categorized into two groups: nomadic tribes that followed the buffalo herds and semi-nomadic tribes that combined agriculture with seasonal hunts.
Among the nomadic Plains Indians were the Arapaho, Assiniboine, Blackfeet, Cheyenne, Comanche, Crow, Gros Ventre, Kiowa, Plains Apache, Plains Cree, Plains Ojibwe, Sarsi, Shoshone, Sioux, and Tonkawa. These tribes epitomized the image of the wandering hunter, their lives intricately woven with the movements of the buffalo. Their homes, the iconic tipis, were ingeniously designed for portability, allowing them to be quickly erected and dismantled as the tribe followed the migratory patterns of their primary food source.
The semi-nomadic tribes, sometimes referred to as the Prairie Indians, included the Arikara, Hidatsa, Iowa, Kanza, Kitsai, Mandan, Missouri, Nez Perce, Omaha, Osage, Otoe, Pawnee, Ponca, Quapaw, Santee, Wichita, and Yankton tribes. These groups established fixed villages, where they cultivated crops such as corn and tobacco, supplementing their agricultural efforts with seasonal buffalo hunts. They occupied a middle ground, blending the settled life of farmers with the nomadic pursuits of hunters.
The buffalo, also known as the American bison, held a central position in the lives of the Plains Indians. It was far more than just a source of food; it was the cornerstone of their existence, providing sustenance, shelter, clothing, and tools. Every part of the animal was utilized, demonstrating a remarkable resourcefulness and respect for nature.
The buffalo’s meat was a staple food, providing vital protein and nutrients. The hides were tanned and fashioned into tipis, offering portable and weather-resistant dwellings. They were also used to create clothing, robes, and shields, providing protection from the elements and in battle. Ropes were crafted from the hides, and dried buffalo dung served as a valuable fuel source in the treeless plains.
Bones were meticulously shaped into tools, such as spoons and scrapers, while sinew, the strong connective tissue, was used to make bowstrings, moccasins, and bags. Even the hooves were utilized, boiled down to create glue. This complete utilization of the buffalo underscored the deep connection between the Plains Indians and their environment.
Prior to the introduction of horses, hunting buffalo was a demanding and dangerous undertaking. The Plains Indians employed various strategies, including surrounding the herds and driving them off cliffs or into natural traps. Another method involved constructing corrals or V-shaped funnels from fallen trees and rocks, where the buffalo could be more easily killed. Some hunters would even disguise themselves with buffalo skins, mimicking the animal’s call to lure them closer. In these early hunts, the primary weapons were spears, bows and arrows, and various types of clubs.
The arrival of the Spanish explorer Francisco Vasquez de Coronado in 1541 marked the first encounter between Europeans and the Plains Indians. Coronado’s expedition, in search of the fabled wealth of Quivira, stumbled upon the Querecho tribe, later known as the Apache, in the Texas panhandle. The Spanish chroniclers described the Querechos as living in tents made of buffalo hides, following the herds, and relying on them for sustenance, noting their nomadic lifestyle reminiscent of the Arabs. At this time, the Plains Indians still traveled on foot, their lives forever altered by the impending arrival of the horse.
The introduction of the horse irrevocably transformed the culture and way of life of the Plains Indians. The Pueblo Revolt of 1680, in which the Pueblo tribes expelled the Spanish from New Mexico, resulted in the capture of thousands of horses and other livestock. This event set in motion the gradual spread of horses northward onto the Great Plains. Tribes acquired horses through various means, including capturing and training wild horses, stealing them from white settlers and enemy tribes, and eventually breeding their own herds.
By the early 18th century, some tribes had fully embraced a horse culture. The Comanche were among the first to adopt a mounted nomadic lifestyle, and soon, horses became integral to the daily lives of all the Plains Indians. Horses revolutionized hunting, enabling them to travel faster and further in pursuit of buffalo. They also facilitated the transportation of goods, making nomadic life more efficient and comfortable. Horses became symbols of prestige and wealth, deeply valued by the Plains Indians.
In addition to horses, the Spanish also introduced guns to the Plains Indians, which further simplified their lives. However, bows and arrows remained in use due to their faster reload time and lighter weight.
The Sioux emerged as the dominant tribe in the Plains Indians in the mid-19th century. Their relatively small horse herds had less impact on the ecosystem, they occupied the heart of the prime buffalo range, and their territory was rich in furs, which they traded with Europeans for goods, including guns.
Religion played a significant role in the lives of the Plains Indians, although beliefs varied between tribes. Common threads included the belief that all things possessed spirits and the recognition of a supreme deity known as the Great Spirit, or Wakan Tanka in the Sioux language.
The Great Spirit was believed to have power over all aspects of nature, including people, animals, vegetation, climate, and the land itself. The earth was revered as the mother of all spirits, and the sun was recognized for its life-giving energy. Spirits were worshipped daily, both individually and in groups. Visions in dreams were believed to be messages from the spirit world. Important ceremonies and rituals included the Sun Dance, a multi-day event of prayer and sacrifice, and Vision Quests, where young men sought their spirit totem to guide and protect them throughout their lives.
Most tribes had a Medicine Man or Woman, considered "blessed" or "Wakan," who served as spiritual leaders, interpreters of visions, healers, and ceremonial guides. Their wisdom and guidance were highly valued, and they often played a crucial role in determining the timing of hunts. Individuals often carried medicine bundles containing items believed to possess special powers, such as skins, pipes, dried herbs, and tobacco.
The 19th century witnessed a dramatic decline in the buffalo population, from an estimated 60 million in 1800 to near extinction by 1890. This catastrophic decline was driven by a combination of factors, including commercial hunting for buffalo hides, government policies aimed at starving the Plains Indians into submission, and the expansion of the railroads. The buffalo, like the Plains Indians, stood in the path of westward expansion.
Armed with powerful, long-range rifles, commercial hunters decimated the buffalo herds, sometimes killing as many as 250 animals per day. By the 1880s, thousands of hunters and skinners were involved in the trade, leaving the plains littered with carcasses. The government actively promoted buffalo hunting to clear land for ranchers, weaken the Plains Indians, and protect the railroad industry from damage caused by buffalo herds.
The destruction of the buffalo had a devastating impact on the Plains Indians, depriving them of their primary food source and way of life. Many were forced onto reservations, becoming dependent on the federal government for survival. By 1890, only a few hundred bison remained on the plains, a stark reminder of the tragic consequences of unchecked exploitation.
Today, the descendants of the Plains Indians continue to live on reservations and in communities across North America, striving to preserve their cultural heritage and traditions in the face of ongoing challenges. They are a testament to the resilience and adaptability of the human spirit, forever bound to the land and the memory of the buffalo that once sustained them.
“The buffalo supplies the Indians with the necessities of life; with habitations, food, clothing, beds, and fuel, strings for their bows, glue, thread, cordage, trail ropes for their horses, covering for their saddles, vessels to hold water, boats to cross streams, and the means of purchasing all they want from the traders. When the buffalo are extinct, they too must dwindle away.”
– Francis Parkman, 1849
