Acoma Pueblo, New Mexico – Ancient Sky City
High above the arid plains of New Mexico, perched atop a formidable sandstone mesa, stands Acoma Pueblo, a testament to human resilience and enduring culture. More commonly known as "Sky City," this remarkable settlement is believed to be the oldest continuously inhabited community in the United States, its origins tracing back to the period between 1100 and 1250 A.D. The very name "Acoma," derived from the Keresan dialect of the Puebloan people, translates to "People of the White Rock," a fitting moniker for a village sculpted from and intrinsically linked to its elevated foundation.
The Acoma Pueblo is more than just a collection of dwellings; it’s a living museum, a repository of centuries of history, tradition, and spiritual significance. Spanning approximately 70 acres, the Acoma Pueblo encompasses several smaller villages, including Acomita, McCartys, Anzac, and Sky Line, each contributing to the rich tapestry of Acoma life. The strategic location of Acoma Pueblo, high atop its mesa, wasn’t accidental. It was a deliberate choice, offering a natural defensive advantage against potential raiders and invaders.
The sheer faces of the mesa presented a formidable obstacle to anyone attempting to approach the Acoma Pueblo. For generations, the only access was via a precarious hand-cut staircase carved directly into the sandstone cliffs. This challenging ascent served as a natural barrier, protecting the Acoma people and their way of life from external threats.
For centuries, the Acoma people have cultivated the fertile valley below their mesa home. Utilizing sophisticated irrigation canals, they channeled water from the Rio San Jose River to nurture their crops in the villages nestled closer to the water source. Beyond agriculture, the Acoma were also active traders, engaging in commerce with neighboring pueblos and even extending their reach over vast distances to connect with the Aztec and Mayan civilizations. These trade networks facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural practices, further enriching the Acoma experience.
The isolation and strategic advantage of the Acoma Pueblo meant that the community was already a thriving settlement when Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, the Spanish explorer, became the first European to set eyes upon it in 1540. Coronado, impressed by the pueblo’s formidable defenses, described it as "one of the strongest ever seen, because the city was built on a high rock. The ascent was so difficult that we repented climbing to the top." His words offer a glimpse into the imposing nature of the Acoma Pueblo and the respect it commanded.
The very inaccessibility that made the Acoma Pueblo so attractive to its inhabitants also made it a place of resistance. It became one of the most steadfast pueblos in its opposition to Spanish rule. Early interactions between the Acoma and the Spanish were often marked by a degree of cordiality, with the Acoma greeting and assisting expedition parties at the base of the mesa. However, as the Spanish presence became increasingly persistent and intrusive, the Acoma’s initial friendliness gave way to resentment and ultimately, to resistance.
The tensions reached a boiling point in 1598 when Governor Juan de Onate, acting under the authority of the King of Spain, initiated a series of raids on Native American pueblos throughout New Mexico, seizing anything of value. The Spanish established their headquarters at the Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo, previously inhabited by the Tewa tribe, using it as a base from which to launch further incursions into neighboring communities.
In December of that year, a group of Spanish soldiers arrived at Acoma, ostensibly seeking provisions. Initially, they were welcomed and treated with hospitality. However, the soldiers soon turned aggressive, demanding access to the Acoma storehouses, which held the grain necessary for the tribe’s survival through the harsh winter months. This brazen demand sparked a furious reaction from the Acoma, who attacked the soldiers, killing thirteen of them, including their commander, Juan de Zaldivar, a nephew of Juan de Onate.
Onate, enraged by the death of his nephew and the challenge to Spanish authority, resolved to make an example of Acoma. He dispatched seventy of his best men, under the command of Vicente de Zaldivar, to attack the pueblo. On January 21, 1599, the Spanish troops appeared on the horizon, and the Acoma warriors spread out to defend the mesa’s edge. A barrage of rocks and arrows rained down upon the advancing Spaniards. Despite the fierce resistance, the soldiers fought their way up the mesa over the course of three days. They managed to bring a small cannon to the back of the mesa and began firing into the village. The battle quickly devolved into a massacre, leaving as many as 800 Acoma people dead and their pueblo in ruins.
The aftermath of the battle was brutal. The survivors were forced to march to the Santo Domingo Pueblo, now known as Kewa Pueblo, where all males over the age of twelve were sentenced to twenty years of servitude. The few surviving Acoma men of fighting age were subjected to the horrific punishment of having one foot cut off. Children under the age of twelve were forcibly removed from their parents and entrusted to Spanish missionaries for upbringing. Most of the remaining women and children were sold into slavery. Onate himself was later tried and convicted of cruelty to both Indians and colonists and banished from New Mexico, though he later appealed the ruling and was cleared of all charges.
The population of Acoma Pueblo, once approximately 2,000, was decimated to a mere 250 survivors. However, the spirit of the Acoma people remained unbroken. Over time, some managed to escape their captivity and return to their ancestral home, where they began the arduous task of rebuilding their lives and their community. Since then, Acoma has been continuously inhabited, a symbol of resilience that never again fell to an invader.
Decades later, in 1629, the Spanish, in a gesture of purported peace and an attempt to Christianize the Acoma people, began construction of the San Estevan del Rey Mission, which included a church, convent, and cemetery. The sheer scale of the project was immense, requiring the manual transport of approximately 20,000 tons of earth and stone up the steep slopes of the mesa. The mission’s thirty-foot beams were carried thirty miles from Mount Taylor and Kaweshtima. Under the direction of Friar Juan Ramirez, the church was finally completed in 1640. However, according to Acoma oral tradition, the people were forced to build the mission by Ramirez.
The church featured two square bell towers that flanked the main facade and housed bells brought from Mexico in the 1800s. A one-story convento, located along the north side of the church, served as living quarters, workrooms, and storage for the resident fathers and friars. The impressive church stands today as a testament to the architectural skills of the time.
During the 1600s, tensions between the Spanish and Native peoples remained high throughout the Southwest, largely fueled by religious disagreements and the abuses of power by religious and political authorities. These simmering tensions ultimately erupted in the Pueblo Revolt of August 10, 1680, when approximately 17,000 Puebloans, including 6,000 warriors, rose up in vengeance against 2,500-3,000 colonists. The Puebloans attacked mission churches, killing twenty-two of the thirty-three friars and demolishing and burning many of them. Warriors attacked isolated farms and haciendas, killing entire families. The Acoma participated in the Revolt by killing the Spanish friars who were living at the mesa at the time but did not destroy the church. It was one of the few Spanish missions that survived the revolt intact. The Spanish were driven out of New Mexico.
However, the Puebloans were again forced to submit to Diego de Vargas in 1692. The Acoma joined another uprising in 1696 but were again subdued in 1699.
Today, the San Estevan del Rey Mission church houses the most extensive inventory of early 17th-century building materials of any structure in New Mexico, an extensive Spanish colonial ecclesiastic art collection, an original hand-hewn circular staircase, hand-carved rails, and paintings.
Acoma, along with the Hopi town of Oraibi, Arizona, stands as one of the oldest continuously inhabited settlements in the United States. As a federally recognized Indian Tribe, the Acoma Pueblo now has a land base covering 431,664 acres and is home to 4,800 tribal members. The San Estevan del Rey Mission and the Pueblo have been proclaimed National Historic Landmarks.
Today’s Acoma people continue the traditions of their ancestors, who they trace to the former inhabitants of older ruins to the north and west of their present-day pueblo. Some also practiced their ancient religion, while others converted to Catholicism long ago when the first Spanish settlers arrived in the 1500s. Throughout the years, celebrations and feasts have been held for religious and historic occasions. While visitors are allowed to attend, they are encouraged to be respectful and aware of local protocol.
While fewer than 50 of the 3,000 Acomans live at the pueblo, the remaining residents choose to live in the nearby villages. The Acoma Pueblo is known for its superb pottery. A permanent exhibit, One Thousand Years of Clay, is housed in the Visitors Center at the base of the mesa and native food and crafts shops.
The tribe also operates the Acoma Route 66 Interpretive Center just off I-40 and the Acoma Commercial Center. The pueblo offers fishing for a fee at its newly built Acoma Lake.
The pueblo is 60 miles west of Albuquerque on Interstate 40 and 12 miles south on Indian Route 23. From Grants, Acoma is just 12 miles east on I-40. The pueblo is open for guided tours between March and October. A fee is required, and cameras without a license are not allowed. Check with the Sky City visitor center at the base of the mesa.