American Horse – A Shrewd Sioux Chief
The annals of Native American history are replete with figures of immense courage, strategic brilliance, and profound wisdom. Among these stands American Horse, an Oglala Sioux chief renowned for his shrewdness, wit, and complex role during a tumultuous period of transition for his people. This article, drawing from the observations of Charles A. Eastman (Ohiyesa), a Dakota physician, writer, and reformer who knew American Horse personally, delves into the life and legacy of this influential leader.
Born into a world rapidly changing due to the encroaching presence of white settlers, American Horse navigated a landscape of conflict, negotiation, and adaptation. His early life, shaped by the traditions of the Sioux and the growing pressures of westward expansion, molded him into a figure capable of both fierce defense of his people’s interests and pragmatic engagement with the United States government.
American Horse inherited his name and position from his uncle, who tragically fell at the Battle of Slim Buttes in 1876. This event marked a turning point in the younger American Horse’s life, thrusting him into a leadership role during a time of immense upheaval. His upbringing had instilled in him a deep connection to his people and their way of life. From a young age, his grandfather recognized a fiery spirit within him, urging that he be exposed to the sun, symbolically asking for the "warm blood of a warrior." This desire for recognition and excitement would define much of his early endeavors.
Early accounts paint a picture of a charismatic and engaging youth. Described as a "clownish sort of boy," American Horse possessed a natural talent for mimicry and impersonation, making him popular among his peers and fostering a sense of leadership. This inherent ability to entertain and connect with others translated into a remarkable gift for oratory, a skill that would later prove invaluable in his role as a negotiator and spokesperson for his people.
Even in his youth, glimpses of American Horse’s shrewdness and courage surfaced. One such instance occurred when, as a young boy, he was attacked by Crow warriors while tending to a herd of ponies. Outnumbered and facing imminent danger, American Horse demonstrated remarkable presence of mind. Instead of engaging in a direct confrontation, he cleverly drove the ponies towards his village while seeking refuge in a thicket of willows. His pursuers, more interested in the larger prize of the herd, abandoned the chase, allowing the young American Horse to escape unharmed. When he returned to camp, his insightful explanation – that the warriors wouldn’t waste time on "small game" when bigger opportunities were available – revealed a strategic mind beyond his years.
Another anecdote illustrates his quick wit and ability to turn potentially embarrassing situations to his advantage. During a buffalo hunt, the mule he was riding became unruly, scattering the meat and skins he was carrying. Rather than admitting defeat, American Horse transformed the mishap into a spectacle of horsemanship, clinging to the bucking animal and singing a Brave Heart song, much to the amusement of his companions. He then boasted of his "brother" the donkey’s ability to frighten the enemy. This incident showcases his talent for self-promotion and his ability to maintain a positive image even in the face of adversity.
However, not all of American Horse’s early exploits were triumphs. One embarrassing misstep involved a nighttime raid by the Crow. Awakened by the commotion, American Horse grabbed his gun and fired, announcing a coup, only to discover that he had shot a hobbled pony belonging to his own camp. This mistake earned him considerable ridicule, a rare instance where his attempts to distinguish himself in warfare backfired spectacularly.
Another tale recounts a hunting trip where, despite being on a war expedition against the Shoshone, the temptation of a fat black-tail deer proved too strong to resist. Ignoring the strategic importance of remaining hidden, American Horse shot the deer and, along with his companions, devoured its liver raw amidst the preparations for an ambush. While this act may seem impulsive, it highlights the practical realities of survival on the frontier and American Horse’s willingness to seize opportunities, even in the midst of conflict.
Perhaps one of the most humorous stories involves American Horse’s attempt to dry his sacred war bonnet over a fire. In a moment of carelessness, the fire flared up, and in his frantic effort to extinguish the flames, he broke off one of the sacred buffalo horns, a significant breach of protocol. These anecdotes, filled with both humor and insight, reveal the complexities of American Horse’s character: a blend of bravery, cunning, and a touch of clumsiness.
The turbulent period between 1865 and 1877 witnessed increasing pressure from the U.S. government on the Sioux to cede their lands and relocate to reservations. During this time, American Horse advocated for yielding to the government, believing that resistance was futile. While this stance may be viewed as controversial, it stemmed from a pragmatic assessment of the situation and a desire to minimize further bloodshed and suffering for his people.
Upon assuming the mantle of leadership in 1876, American Horse aligned himself with the peace faction at the Red Cloud Agency near Fort Robinson, Nebraska. Recognizing the potential for further conflict, he worked to maintain order and prevent young warriors from engaging in hostile actions. The U.S. military, aware of his influence and the perceived hostility of other prominent chiefs, utilized American Horse as a valuable asset. Many of his young men enlisted as scouts on his advice, and American Horse himself even entered the service.
One notable incident involved a potential uprising led by a Sioux warrior known as Sioux Jim. In an effort to prevent further conflict, American Horse approached Sioux Jim as a peacemaker, but was rebuffed and accused of lacking courage. In response, American Horse, accompanied by several warriors, confronted Sioux Jim, ultimately shooting and wounding him before one of his men delivered the final blow. This decisive action quelled the unrest and demonstrated American Horse‘s willingness to take decisive action to maintain peace, even if it meant resorting to violence.
Following the killing of Crazy Horse, a pivotal moment in Sioux history, American Horse played a crucial role in stabilizing the situation and advocating for cooperation with the government. From this point forward, he became an influential figure in Teton Sioux affairs, renowned for his eloquent speeches, which often emphasized conciliation while also highlighting the duplicity of the white man. His wit and repartee were legendary, as exemplified by his observation that if golden slippers were required to enter the white man’s heaven, no Indian would ever get there, as the whites had taken the Black Hills and all its gold.
During the Ghost Dance movement of 1890-1891, American Horse demonstrated his true leadership. While many were swept up in the fervor of the new religious movement, he remained skeptical and cautioned his band against participating. When the movement escalated into widespread unrest, American Horse took a firm stand against it.
During the "Big Issue" at Pine Ridge Agency, where thousands of Indians had gathered, the arrest of a disaffected man named Little threatened to ignite a full-scale conflict. As tensions reached a boiling point, American Horse emerged from the agent’s office and confronted the angry mob. He implored them to consider the consequences of their actions, warning that violence would lead to the destruction of their nation. His impassioned plea, delivered with unwavering courage, diffused the immediate crisis, allowing the police to regain control and preventing a potential massacre.
American Horse’s commitment to education was another defining aspect of his leadership. He recognized the importance of adapting to the changing world and encouraged his people to embrace new opportunities. His son Samuel and nephew Robert were among the first students at the Carlisle Indian School, a testament to his belief in the power of education to empower future generations.
American Horse passed away on December 16, 1908, at the age of 68, leaving behind a complex and multifaceted legacy. He was a warrior, a diplomat, a peacemaker, and an advocate for his people. While his decisions were not always universally popular, they were driven by a deep-seated desire to ensure the survival and well-being of the Oglala Sioux in a rapidly changing world. His life serves as a reminder of the challenges faced by Native American leaders during a period of immense transition and the difficult choices they were forced to make in the face of overwhelming pressure. His shrewdness, eloquence, and unwavering commitment to his people cemented his place in history as a significant figure in the annals of the American West.