American Revolution Summary
The seeds of the American Revolution were sown long before the first shots rang out at Lexington and Concord. For over a century, England had maintained thirteen colonies along the eastern coast of North America, a territory stretching from Canada to Florida. The year 1763 marked a significant expansion of British dominion, as the Treaty of Paris concluding the French and Indian War granted England control over a vast expanse of North America. While the colonists played a crucial role in securing this victory, England’s subsequent treatment of its American subjects was, to many, a stark demonstration of ingratitude.
Like many European powers of the era, England viewed its colonies primarily as sources of economic benefit. A cornerstone of this philosophy was mercantilism, the belief that colonies existed to enrich the mother country through trade. England sought to maximize its profits by selling goods to the colonies at inflated prices and restricting colonial trade to English merchants. For instance, a Virginian planter desiring fine silks from Paris was forbidden from purchasing them directly from France. Instead, he was compelled to buy them through English intermediaries, significantly increasing the cost. Similarly, colonial producers of tobacco and rice were restricted to selling their goods solely to England, even if other nations offered more favorable prices. This economic subjugation fostered a sense of resentment and a yearning for greater autonomy among the colonists.
Even prior to the mid-18th century, the colonists had demonstrated a spirit of independence. As early as 1676, Bacon’s Rebellion erupted in Virginia. When Native American attacks threatened the colonists, Governor William Berkeley, allegedly involved in trade with those very tribes, refused to take action. Nathaniel Bacon, a young lawyer whose overseer had been killed in an attack, led a group of colonists against the Native Americans, successfully quelling the unrest. However, because Bacon acted without official authorization, Governor Berkeley declared him an outlaw.
For months, Bacon and Berkeley engaged in a power struggle for control of Jamestown, Virginia. Ultimately, Bacon burned the town to the ground to prevent it from sheltering the governor. Although Bacon’s Rebellion ultimately failed, it demonstrated the colonists’ willingness to challenge royal authority. Over the years leading up to the American Revolution Summary, there were many other disputes, which, however, did not lead to open revolt.
By 1750, England had enacted numerous laws aimed at controlling colonial trade, some of which forbade trade with other countries or even between colonies. Had these laws been strictly enforced, the American Revolution Summary may have occurred even sooner.
However, enforcement was often lax, and colonists frequently circumvented the laws through smuggling. Royal governors often turned a blind eye to these activities, but their actions simultaneously angered the liberty-loving colonists. Appointed by the king, the governors often acted as if they possessed absolute power, a notion challenged by the colonists, who believed their elected assemblies held greater authority. This friction between the governors and the assemblies further fueled the growing discontent.
While France remained a significant power in North America, England had been careful to maintain good relations with its colonists, fearing that they might be tempted to align themselves with France. However, once the French threat was removed, the English government adopted a more assertive approach, determined to enforce its trade laws and suppress colonial smuggling. Customs officers were empowered to search for smuggled goods using "writs of assistance," which granted them the authority to enter any store or private residence based on mere suspicion, a blatant violation of colonists’ rights. James Otis of Massachusetts eloquently argued against these writs, but the courts upheld their legality.
The French and Indian War, despite its costs in lives and resources, instilled a new sense of confidence in the colonists. Fighting alongside British soldiers, they gained respect for one another and discovered their own military capabilities, identifying capable leaders such as George Washington, John Stark, and Israel Putnam. The colonists, at this point, did not desire independence. They considered themselves loyal Englishmen, demanding only the rights to which they believed they were entitled.
This sentiment began to shift when England decided to maintain a standing army in the colonies and to force the colonists to contribute to its upkeep. The Stamp Act, passed to raise revenue, required colonists to purchase stamps for business contracts, legal papers, and newspapers. The colonists vehemently opposed the Stamp Act.
The colonists’ opposition stemmed not merely from the tax itself, but from the manner in which it was levied and its underlying purpose. A fundamental right of Englishmen was representation in the lawmaking body that imposed taxes. The American colonies had their own elected assemblies, but they lacked representation in the British Parliament, which had imposed the Stamp Act and other objectionable laws. Furthermore, the colonists questioned the need for a standing army in America during peacetime.
In Boston, the news of the Stamp Act was met with widespread mourning. Church bells tolled, flags were lowered to half-staff, and protests erupted. In New York, copies of the law were altered, replacing the king’s coat of arms with a grinning skull. Colonists destroyed boxes of stamps and stamped paper and threatened stamp tax collectors. At the suggestion of James Otis, a congress was called, and nine colonies sent delegates to New York, where they signed a petition to the king and Parliament.
Faced with mounting opposition, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act. However, King George III, determined to assert British authority, remained unwilling to concede to colonial demands. Under his influence, Parliament passed new laws taxing the colonists in other ways, including duties on imports such as glass, lead, paper, and tea. These taxes, coupled with the presence of British troops, further inflamed colonial anger.
Tensions escalated further with incidents like the Battle of Golden Hill in New York City in January 1770, where British soldiers clashed with colonists over a "Liberty Pole" erected by the Sons of Liberty. Two months later, the Boston Massacre occurred on March 5, 1770, when British soldiers fired on a group of civilians, killing five.
Throughout the colonies, the powerful words of Patrick Henry resonated: "Taxation without representation is tyranny!" Colonists boycotted English goods, prompting protests from English merchants facing economic losses. The king’s party, however, feared that repealing all taxes would embolden the colonists.
A compromise was reached: most taxes were repealed, but a small tax on tea was retained. This tax was so minimal that English tea was cheaper than smuggled tea, and English merchants expected to regain their trade.
However, the colonists remained steadfast in their refusal to purchase English tea. In the fall of 1773, when three shiploads of tea arrived in Boston Harbor, colonists warned the shipmasters against landing the tea, urging them to return to England. However, the governor prevented the ships from leaving the harbor.
On the night of December 16, 1773, a group of colonists disguised as Mohawk Indians boarded the ships and dumped the tea into the sea. This act of defiance, known as the Boston Tea Party, sparked outrage in England and inspired similar acts of resistance in other colonial cities.
As punishment for the Boston Tea Party, the British government closed the port of Boston until the colonists paid for the destroyed tea. This act, known as the Intolerable Acts, crippled Boston’s economy and prompted the other colonies to rally in support, sending supplies and messages of encouragement. The women, in societies known as the “Daughters of Liberty,” pledged to wear homespun clothes and not drink tea.
In September 1774, representatives from all colonies except Georgia met in Philadelphia for the First Continental Congress. The delegates discussed their options, including an economic boycott of British trade, a list of rights and grievances, and a petition to King George III. They also agreed to convene a second meeting if their petition failed to address their grievances.
When their appeal to the Crown proved ineffective, the Second Continental Congress convened in May 1775 to organize the colonies’ defense at the onset of the American Revolution Summary. The delegates also urged each colony to establish and train its own militia.
Patrick Henry, speaking at St. John’s Church in Richmond, Virginia, proclaimed: "We must fight. I repeat it, sir, we must fight. I know not what course others may take, but, as for me, give me liberty or give me death!" His words captured the sentiment of many colonists.
In towns throughout the colonies, civilians secretly trained and drilled as Minute Men, prepared to fight at a moment’s notice. They also stored supplies of powder, shot, and food.
Governor Gage of Massachusetts discovered that supplies were being stored in Concord and ordered the arrest of Samuel Adams and John Hancock, two prominent colonial leaders. When the British arrived in Lexington on April 19, 1775, they encountered Minute Men drawn up on the village green. The British commander ordered them to disperse, but they refused. The commander then ordered his troops to fire, killing eight Minute Men and wounding ten. This marked the beginning of the Revolutionary War.
The British then marched on to Concord to seize the stored supplies. However, the supplies had been moved. As the British retreated to Boston, they were ambushed by Minute Men hiding along the roadside.
News of the battles spread rapidly throughout the colonies, igniting a wave of patriotic fervor. Israel Putnam, a veteran of the French and Indian War, famously left his plow in the field and rode to Boston to join the fight.
The Americans, recognizing the strategic importance of Bunker Hill overlooking Boston, fortified the hill on the night of June 16, 1775. The British, determined to dislodge the Americans, launched a frontal assault. The Americans, low on powder, were ordered to hold their fire until the enemy was close. The British charged up the hill, only to be met with a devastating volley of fire that forced them to retreat. They charged again, and again they were repulsed. On the third assault, the Americans ran out of powder and were forced to retreat. The British captured the hill, but the Battle of Bunker Hill demonstrated the colonists’ determination and fighting ability.
Despite this early enthusiasm, the colonists faced many challenges. Raising an army proved difficult, as each colony was reluctant to commit its resources. The Continental Congress was plagued by internal divisions, weakening its authority. However, the Congress made a wise decision in appointing George Washington as Commander in Chief of the Continental Army. Washington’s military experience and unwavering character made him an ideal leader for the American cause.
Washington acknowledged the immense challenges ahead, including the need to train soldiers, secure supplies, and overcome internal squabbles. Despite these obstacles, he dedicated himself to the task.
Over the next eight years, numerous battles and skirmishes were fought as the colonies struggled for independence. Finally, in April 1782, the British House of Commons voted to end the war in America. Preliminary peace articles were signed in Paris in November 1782, and the formal end of the war came with the signing of the Treaty of Paris and the Treaties of Versailles on September 3, 1783. The last British troops left New York City on November 25, 1783, and the United States Congress of the Confederation ratified the Paris treaty on January 14, 1784.
The American Revolution Summary resulted in an estimated 25,000 American deaths during active military service, with only about 8,000 of these deaths occurring in battle. The other 17,000 soldiers died from disease. The number of patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000. The American Revolution Summary was a long and difficult struggle, but it ultimately led to the birth of a new nation founded on the principles of liberty and self-government.