An Early Sketch of Oregon

By Henry Howe in 1857

The captivating landscapes of the Pacific Northwest, particularly the rocky Oregon Coast, beckon with a timeless allure. These shores, where the untamed ocean clashes with resilient land, hold stories of exploration, trade, and the enduring spirit of pioneers. This article delves into the early history of this region, tracing its discovery, the ambitions of fur traders, and the eventual establishment of American settlements.

The initial glimpses of North America’s western coasts were provided by Spanish explorers in the century following Columbus’s arrival in the New World. Their voyages laid the foundation for future exploration, piquing the interest of other European powers. The English followed, with Sir Francis Drake charting the coastline between 38 and 48 degrees latitude in 1578. He christened this territory New Albion, a testament to England’s aspirations in the New World.

The name "Oregon" itself has intriguing origins. It is believed to have derived from "Oregano," the Spanish term for wild marjoram. This fragrant herb, or a similar word, is thought to have lent its name to this vast and promising land. However, detailed knowledge of even the coastline remained limited until the latter part of the 18th century.

Following Captain Cook’s final voyage, the world was alerted to the immense wealth of furs available along the Northwest Coast. Sea otter, beaver, and other valuable pelts commanded exorbitant prices in the Chinese market, sparking a frenzy reminiscent of a gold rush. Adventurers and entrepreneurs from various nations flocked to the region, eager to capitalize on this lucrative trade. By 1792, an estimated 21 vessels, primarily American, were actively engaged in trading with the indigenous populations along the Oregon coast. This period marked a significant shift in the region’s destiny, as it transitioned from a relatively unknown territory to a hub of international commerce. The allure of Oregon fueled dreams of wealth and opportunity.

Before this surge in activity, the Columbia River, the largest river emptying into the Pacific from the Americas, remained shrouded in mystery. Spanish navigator Bruno de Heceta was the first to sight the opening where its waters met the ocean in August 1776. He marked it on Spanish charts as the mouth of the Rio San Roque. Later, in July 1788, Lieutenant John Meares of the British Navy examined the area and concluded that no river existed. This assertion, despite its inaccuracy, formed the basis of Britain’s claim to the territory based on the right of discovery. Vancouver, another British navigator, further solidified this notion in 1792, stating that from Cape Mendocino in California to the Straits of Fuca, the southern boundary of Vancouver Island, there was not a single harbor, and the coast presented a "compact and nearly straight barrier against the sea."

However, on May 7, 1792, Captain Robert Gray of the ship Columbia from Boston, Massachusetts, definitively established the existence of the Columbia River. He successfully navigated and entered the river, naming it after his vessel. This act of discovery gave the United States a strong claim to the land drained by its waters, a claim rooted in the principle of exploration and documentation. Gray’s discovery of the Columbia River was a pivotal moment in the history of Oregon, shifting the balance of power and setting the stage for future American involvement.

In the autumn of 1792, Sir Alexander Mackenzie embarked on an ambitious expedition from Fort Chipewyan on Athabasca Lake, situated midway between Hudson’s Bay and the Pacific Ocean. He reached the Pacific in July 1793, becoming the first white man to cross the American continent at its widest point. However, his route lay north of the present-day northern boundary of Oregon. A decade later, in 1804-05, Lewis and Clark led their renowned expedition, exploring the vast expanse from the mouth of the Missouri River to the mouth of the Columbia. This comprehensive exploration of the Columbia River, the first of its kind, provided another significant basis for the United States’ claim to the Oregon Country.

The British North West Fur Company established a trading post on Fraser’s Lake in 1806, marking the first settlement by British subjects west of the Rocky Mountains. They followed with other posts in the region, which they named New Caledonia. In 1808, the Missouri Fur Company, through its agent Andrew Henry, established a trading post on the Lewis River, a tributary of the Columbia. This was the first settlement of civilized people in what is now Oregon. In the same year, Captain Smith of the Albatross, of Boston, attempted to found a trading post on the south bank of the Columbia River, 40 miles from its mouth, but abandoned the effort the same season, as did Andrew Henry’s post in 1810.

The year 1810 witnessed the emergence of a significant figure in the history of Oregon: John Jacob Astor. A German merchant from New York, Astor had amassed a considerable fortune through commerce in the Pacific and China. He formed the Pacific Fur Company with the ambitious goal of dominating the fur trade in the unsettled territories of America and supplying merchandise to the Russian fur trading establishments in the North Pacific.

Astor envisioned a network of trading posts along the Missouri and Columbia Rivers. These posts would be supplied with goods shipped from the Atlantic coast or transported overland via the Missouri River. A central depot on the Pacific coast would serve as a hub for receiving merchandise and distributing it to the various posts, while also collecting furs for shipment to Canton. Vessels would then carry these furs to China, exchanging them for tea, silk, and other commodities to be distributed in Europe and America. This grand vision aimed to establish a global trade empire centered on the resources of the American West.

Astor’s enterprise was audacious for its time, but he was not without rivals. The British North West Fur Company posed the most significant challenge, though Astor possessed greater resources. As a strategic move, Astor offered them a one-third interest in his venture. However, they declined, secretly plotting to undermine his efforts. Undeterred, Astor proceeded with his plans, recruiting partners, clerks, and voyageurs, many of whom were former employees of the North West Fur Company. Wilson P. Hunt of New Jersey was appointed as the chief agent for operations in Western America. The story of early Oregon is intertwined with the ambition and strategic maneuvering of figures like Astor.

In September 1810, the ship Tonquin, captained by Samuel Thorn, departed from New York bound for the mouth of the Columbia River. On board were four partners: Alexander McKay, Duncan McDougall, and David and Robert Stuart, all British subjects, along with clerks, voyageurs, and mechanics. In January 1811, a second detachment, led by Wilson Hunt, Robert McClellan, Kenneth McKenzie, and Ramsey Crooks, embarked on an overland journey from New York to the same destination, following the Missouri River. In October 1811, the ship Beaver, captained by Cornelius Sowles, set sail for the North Pacific carrying additional clerks and personnel. Prior to these voyages, in 1809, Astor had dispatched the Enterprise, captained by John Ebberts, to gather information at the Russian settlements and pave the way for settlements in Oregon. Furthermore, in 1811, Astor sent an agent to St. Petersburg, securing a monopoly from the Russian American Fur Company to supply their posts in the North Pacific with merchandise and receive furs in exchange.

The Tonquin reached the Columbia River in March 1811. Shortly after, the crew began constructing their factory or depot, which they named Astoria, on the south bank of the river, a few miles inland. In June, the Tonquin, with Alexander McKay aboard, sailed north to arrange trade with the Russians. In July, the Astorians were surprised by the arrival of a party from the North West Fur Company, led by Mr. Thompson. They had traveled overland from Canada to preempt Astor’s company in occupying the mouth of the Columbia, but delays in navigating the Rocky Mountains forced them to winter there, hindering their progress. David Stuart accompanied Mr. Thompson on his return journey, and later founded the trading post called Okonogan.

The early months of 1812 saw the arrival of Wilson Hunt’s detachment at Astoria in a state of severe distress. They had spent over a year traversing from St. Louis, Missouri, enduring extreme hardships due to hunger, thirst, and cold during their winter wanderings through the treacherous, snow-covered mountains. Many perished as a result of these conditions and other causes. In May 1812, the Beaver arrived at Astoria with the third detachment, led by Mr. Clarke. They brought news of tragedy: Captain Ebbets of the Enterprise had left a letter at the Sandwich Islands, revealing that the Tonquin and its crew had been destroyed by Indians near the Straits of Fuca the previous June.

In August 1812, Wilson Hunt, leaving Astoria under the charge of Duncan McDougall, boarded the Beaver to trade with the Russian posts, a task originally intended for the Tonquin. He successfully negotiated a highly advantageous agreement with Baranof, the Governor of Russian America, at Sitka. After acquiring a valuable cargo of furs, he dispatched the vessel to Canton via the Sandwich Islands. Hunt remained in the islands and, in 1814, chartered the Peddler to return to Astoria. He discovered that Astoria had fallen into the hands of the North West Fur Company.

Before Hunt’s departure aboard the Beaver, a party was dispatched to establish a trading post on the Spokane River. Ramsey Crooks, Robert McClellan, and Robert Stuart journeyed overland to New York to report on the progress of the enterprise. The trade was flourishing, and a significant quantity of furs had been amassed at Astoria. The story of the challenges and triumphs of the early settlers in Oregon is a testament to their resilience and determination.

In January 1813, the Astorians received word from a trading vessel that war had broken out with England. Shortly after, John Mactavish and Joseph Laroque, partners of the North West Company, arrived at Astoria. Duncan McDougall and Kenneth McKenzie, both of Scottish descent, were the only partners present. They made the ill-advised decision to dissolve the company in July. Stuart and Clarke, stationed at the Okonogan and Spokane posts, opposed this action. However, it was ultimately agreed that if assistance did not arrive from the United States soon, they would abandon the enterprise.

Mactavish and his North West Company associates revisited Astoria, anticipating the arrival of the Isaac Todd, an armed ship from London with orders to "take and destroy everything American on the northwest coast." Despite this imminent threat, they were received hospitably and held private discussions with Duncan McDougall and Kenneth McKenzie. The outcome of these discussions was the sale of the Pacific Fur Company’s establishment, furs, and supplies to the North West Company for approximately $58,000, effectively enabling the company to establish itself in the region.

Thus concluded the Astoria enterprise. It is widely believed that had the directing partners on the Columbia River been Americans rather than foreigners, they would have persevered through the difficulties, even amidst the war. The sale was considered a disgraceful act, and the conduct of Duncan McDougall and Kenneth McKenzie both during and after the sale raised suspicions about their motives. However, it was unrealistic to expect them to engage in hostilities against their countrymen and former associates.

The British renamed Astoria Fort George. From 1813 to 1823, few, if any, American citizens ventured into the lands west of the Rocky Mountains. Nearly all the trade of the Upper Mississippi and Missouri Rivers was controlled by the American Fur Company, headed by Astor, and the Columbia Fur Company, formed in 1822, largely by individuals who had been dissatisfied with their service in the North West Company. The Columbia Fur Company established posts on the upper reaches of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Yellowstone Rivers, which were transferred to the North American Company in 1826 following the merger of the two entities. Around this time, overland trade with Santa Fe commenced, with caravans traveling regularly between St. Louis and Santa Fe each summer. In 1824, Ashley of St. Louis re-established commercial ties with the territories west of the Rocky Mountains, building a trading post on Ashley’s Lake in Utah.

These active endeavors by the Missouri Fur Company traders spurred the American Fur Company to send their agents and associates beyond the Rocky Mountains, although they did not construct any posts. In 1827, Joshua Pilcher of Missouri traversed the South Pass with 45 men, wintering on the headwaters of the Colorado River in what is now northeastern Utah. The following year, he proceeded northward along the base of the Rocky Mountains to near latitude 47 degrees. He remained there until the spring of 1829, when he descended Clark River to Fort Colville, recently established at the Falls by the Hudson’s Bay Company, which had, a few years prior, absorbed the interests of the North West Company. Pilcher returned to the United States via the long and circuitous northern route of the Upper Columbia, the Athabasca, the Assiniboin, the Red River, and the Upper Missouri River. Little was known about the regions traversed by Pilcher before the publication of his concise narrative. The account of J.O. Pattie’s rambles, a Missouri Fur Company trader, through New Mexico, Chihuahua, Sonora, and California, shed some light on the geography of those territories. In 1832, Captain Bonneville of the U.S. Army, on furlough, led a party of 100 men from Missouri over the mountains, spending over two years on the Columbia and Colorado Rivers hunting, trapping, and trading.

Around the same time, Captain Nathaniel Wyeth of Massachusetts attempted to establish commercial relations with the countries on the Columbia River, which was increasingly being referred to as Oregon. His plan mirrored Astor’s, but with the added element of transporting salmon from the Oregon rivers to the United States. He led two overland expeditions to Oregon, establishing Fort Hall as a trading post in present-day Idaho, and another, primarily for fishing, near the mouth of the Willamette River. This venture ultimately failed due to the competition from the Hudson’s Bay Company, which established the counter-establishment of Fort Boise. By offering goods to the Indians at prices Wyeth could not match, they forced him to desist, and he sold his interests to them. Meanwhile, a brig he had dispatched from Boston arrived in the Columbia and returned with a cargo of salted salmon, but the results were not encouraging, and the enterprise was abandoned.

Excluded from Oregon by these and other factors, the American traders primarily confined themselves to the headwaters of the Colorado River and Utah Lake, where they established a few small settlements and occasionally ventured as far west as San Francisco and Monterey, California. The number of American hunters and trappers employed west of the Rocky Mountains seldom exceeded 200. They roamed through the wilderness in search of furs, which they brought to rendezvous points in the mountain valleys and bartered with Missouri traders.

Concurrent with Nathaniel Wyeth’s expeditions, the earliest migrations of settlers from the United States to Oregon occurred. The first of these was established in 1834 in the Willamette Valley by a group of Methodists, who traveled by sea under the leadership of Reverends Jason Lee and Cyrus Shepherd. In that valley, a small number of retired Hudson’s Bay Company employees were residing and raising cattle. Congregationalists and Presbyterians established colonies two or three years later in the Walla Walla and Spokane regions, with Reverends Samuel Parker, Henry Spalding, William Gray, Elkanah Walker, Cushing Eels, John Smith Griffin, and Dr. Marcus Whitman as missionaries. The early explorations and settlements shaped the landscape and identity of Oregon.

In all of these locations, mission schools were established to educate the native population. In 1839, a printing press was set up at Walla Walla, Washington, where the first printed materials north of Mexico on the Pacific side of the mountains were produced. Books were printed using type set by native compositors. Roman Catholics from Missouri soon after established stations on the Clark River.

Around 1837, the American public began to take a keen interest in the United States’ claims to Oregon, and emigration societies were formed. Petitions were presented to Congress urging them to either reach a definitive agreement with Great Britain, the other claimant, or to take immediate possession of the country. Each year from 1838 to 1843, small parties emigrated overland from Missouri to Oregon, enduring significant hardships along the way. By the end of 1842, the American citizen population numbered around four hundred. Encouraged by the promise of protection offered by the passage of a bill in February 1843 by the U.S. Senate for the immediate occupation of Oregon, approximately 1,000 emigrants, including men, women, and children, gathered at Westport on the Missouri frontier the following June. They followed the route up the Platte River and through the South Pass, surveyed the previous year by Charles Fremont, then by Fort Hall, Idaho, to the Willamette Valley, arriving in October after a laborious and arduous journey of more than 2,000 miles. Others soon followed, and by the end of the following year, over 3,000 American citizens were residing in Oregon.

By the treaty for the purchase of Florida in 1819, the boundary between the Spanish possessions and the United States was fixed in the northwest at 42 degrees latitude, which is now the northern boundary of Utah and California. Through this treaty, the United States succeeded to any claim to Oregon that Spain may have derived from its early navigators. In June 1846, all the disputes surrounding Oregon, which at one point threatened war, were resolved by a treaty between the United States and Great Britain. The treaty established the northern boundary, allowed British subjects free navigation of the Columbia River, and ensured that the Hudson’s Bay Company and all British subjects would retain possession of any land or property they held in Oregon at that time.

The primary obstacle to a previous settlement had been the Hudson’s Bay Company’s influence. The British public at large had limited knowledge of and interest in the country. The British, first through the North West Company and later through the Hudson’s Bay Company (which absorbed the former), had enjoyed almost exclusive control over Oregon from 1814 to 1840. The Hudson’s Bay Company received exclusive rights from the British government to trade west of the Rocky Mountains, where fur-bearing animals were more plentiful than anywhere else in the world, effectively excluding all other British subjects.

The company’s structure was designed to ensure informed and prudent decision-making, as well as efficient and precise execution. Their treatment of the Indians was a remarkable blend of policy and humanity. The sale of ardent spirits to the Indians was prohibited. Schools for Indian children and hospitals for the sick were established at each trading post. Missionaries from various denominations were encouraged and supported. All emigrants from the United States and elsewhere were treated with the utmost kindness and hospitality. However, as soon as any of these emigrants attempted to hunt, trap, or trade with the natives, the company’s considerable resources were turned against them, forcing them to desist. As the fur trade began to decline, the company shifted its focus to agriculture, lumbering, fishing, and other pursuits.

In 1841, the coast of Oregon was visited by the ships of the United Exploring Expedition under Lieutenant Charles Wilkes. He arrived in the sloop of war Vincennes off the mouth of the Columbia River on April 27. Finding it too hazardous to attempt the entrance, he sailed to the Straits of Fuca, the southern boundary of Vancouver Island, and anchored in Puget Sound, near Fort Nasqually, Washington. From there, he dispatched several surveying parties into the interior. One of these parties crossed the westernmost range of mountains to the Columbia River and, after visiting the British trading posts of Okonogan, Colville, and Walla Walla, returned to Nasqually. Another party proceeded southward to the Cowlitz, a stream flowing south and emptying into the Columbia River approximately forty miles from the ocean. From the mouth of the Cowlitz, they traveled up the Columbia to Walla Walla and back down to the ocean. Meanwhile, other parties were engaged in surveying the coasts and harbors on the Pacific, the Straits of Fuca, and Admiralty Inlet, particularly exploring the valleys of the Willamette, which empties into the Columbia, and the Sacramento River of California. During these operations, the sloop of war Peacock was lost on the bar at the mouth of the Columbia River, but the crew, instruments, and papers were saved.

At that time, Wilkes estimated the population to consist of 19,199 Indians, 650 Canadians and half-breeds, and 150 citizens of the United States. The Hudson’s Bay Company had 25 forts and trading stations in Oregon. Dr. John McLoughlin, the company’s executive officer, was known for his kindness to the American settlers and, despite being Catholic, for his hospitality towards the Methodist and Presbyterian missionaries. Although the Hudson’s Bay Company charter prohibited them from engaging in agriculture, its officers, agents, and servants formed another company for this purpose, called the Puget Sound Company, with a capital of two million. They began by importing large quantities of livestock from California and some of the finest breeds from England. They engaged in farming on a large scale. Nearly all their trading establishments were later converted into agricultural operations, and they almost entirely supplied all their stations and forts, as well as the Russian ports in the north, with wheat, butter, and cheese.

Among the most significant events in the history of Oregon was the Cayuse War during the winter of 1847-48. It stemmed from the following circumstances: Reverend Dr. Marcus Whitman, a Presbyterian missionary, had established a fort and trading post in the Walla Walla Valley in addition to his religious duties. He employed large numbers of Indians and emigrants in agriculture. Many of these Cayuse Indians, under his guidance, had become partially civilized and were proficient farmers. He was widely known for his hospitality towards the newly arrived and exhausted emigrants and was popular with all. His wife was equally renowned for her kindness. At the time, she was administering measles medicine to the Indians, as the disease was widespread among them. Many died, and they became suspicious that they were being poisoned by the Whitmans’ medicines. On November 29, 1847, around noon, the Indians stormed the fort, murdering Dr. Marcus Whitman and his wife, along with 13 others. They took 61 people prisoner and burned the fort and houses of the settlement. Upon receiving the news in the Willamette settlements, troops were raised, the Indians were defeated in three battles, and their villages and provisions were destroyed. The prisoners were eventually released through the admirable efforts of Peter Sken Ogden, chief factor of the Hudson’s Bay Company.

Oregon was organized as a territory in 1848. It has an average width, east to west, of approximately 680 miles and a north-south length of 500 miles, resulting in an area of approximately 340,000 square miles. It is divided into three distinct natural sections:

The first section lies between the Pacific Ocean and the President’s Range, also known as the Cascade Mountains. The Cascade Range runs parallel to the coastline along the entire length of the territory and continues through California under the name Sierra Nevada. It rises in many places into conical peaks reaching heights of 12,000 to 14,000 feet, or over two miles above sea level. The distance from the seashore to this range varies from 100 to 150 miles. While there were a few mountain passes, they were difficult and could only be attempted late in the spring and summer. The climate of this section is mild year-round, avoiding the extreme cold of winter and the heat of summer. The prevailing winds during the summer blow from the north and west, while the winter brings tempestuous winds from the south, west, and southeast. Winter typically lasts from December to February. Rains usually begin in November and continue until March, though they are frequent but not heavy. Snow falls occasionally, but seldom remains for more than three days. Frosts arrive early, occurring in late August, which can be attributed to the proximity of the mountains. Fruit trees blossom in early April. The soil in the northern areas ranges from a light brown loam to a thin layer of vegetable earth with gravel and sand as a subsoil. In the central regions, it ranges from a rich, heavy loam and unctuous clay to a deep, heavy black loam on a caprock. In the southern areas, specifically the Willamette Valley, the soil is generally good, varying from a black vegetable loam to decomposed basalt with stiff clay and patches of loose gravel soil. The hills are primarily composed of basalt, stone, and slate. Between the Umpqua River and the southern boundary, the rocks are primitive, consisting of slate, hornblende, and granite, resulting in a gritty and poor soil. However, some areas feature rich prairies covered with oaks. For the most part, this is a well-timbered region. It is intersected by spurs or offsets from the Cascade Mountains, resulting in a broken terrain covered with dense forests. The timber consists of pines, firs, spruce, red and white oaks, ash, arbutus, arbor vitae, cedar, poplar, maple, willow, cherry, and yew, with a thick undergrowth of hazel, rubus, and roses. The richest and best soil is found in the second, or middle prairie, and is ideally suited for agriculture. The high and low areas are excellent for pasture land. The climate and soil are well-suited for all kinds of grain, including wheat, rye, oats, barley, and peas. Indian corn does not thrive in any part of this territory or the Mississippi Valley. Many fruits appear to flourish, especially apples and pears. Vegetables grow exceptionally well and yield abundantly.

The Second or Middle Section lies between the Cascade and Blue Mountain Ranges. The Blue Mountains follow an irregular course, occasionally interrupted, but generally running in a northerly direction. They originate in the Klamath range near the southern boundary of the territory. The Saptin or Snake River cuts through them at the junction of the Kooskooskee River, branching into hills of moderate elevation until they reappear on the north side of the Columbia River, above the Okonogan River, extending northward until they merge with the Rocky Mountains. The climate of this middle section is variable. During the summer, the atmosphere is much drier and warmer, while the winter is much colder than in the western section. The extremes of heat and cold are more frequent and pronounced, with the mercury occasionally dropping as low as minus 18 degrees in winter and rising to 108 degrees in the shade during the summer. The daily temperature difference is approximately 40 degrees. However, it has proven to be extremely salubrious, with pure and healthy air. No dews fall in this section. The soil is mostly a light sandy loam, with rich alluvial deposits in the valleys, while the hills are generally barren. The surface is approximately 1,000 feet above the level of the western section and generally consists of rolling prairie. The area around the junction of the Saptin or Snake and Columbia Rivers features an extensive rolling landscape well-suited for grazing. South of the Columbia River, extending to the southern boundary of the territory, timber or wood is scarce, unless the wormwood (artemisia) can be considered as such. However, some portions of this region are suitable for farming.

The Third, or East Section, is situated between the Rocky and the Blue Mountains. The Rocky Mountains begin on the Arctic coast and continue as an almost unbroken chain until they merge with the Andes of South America. The part that forms the eastern boundary of Oregon, extending north from the Great South Pass at the Committee’s Punch-bowl Pass, presents an almost impenetrable barrier, with the few passes between being very difficult and dangerous. The climate of the eastern section is extremely variable, with daily changes reminiscent of spring, summer, autumn, and winter. There are a few places suitable for small farms, but they are scarce. The soil is rocky and broken, presenting an almost unbroken barren waste. Stupendous mountain spurs traverse the area in all directions, leaving little level ground. Snow covers the mountains for most, if not all, of the year. The region is exceedingly dry and arid, with infrequent rains and minimal snowfall. This region is partially timbered, and the soil is heavily impregnated with salts.