Arapaho – Great Buffalo Hunters of the Plains

The Arapaho people, deeply intertwined with the vast landscapes of the American Great Plains, boast a rich and complex history that stretches back centuries. Their story is one of adaptation, resilience, and a profound connection to the land and its resources, particularly the majestic buffalo. From their origins as settled agriculturalists in the eastern woodlands to their emergence as skilled nomadic hunters, the Arapaho have navigated significant transformations, leaving an indelible mark on the history of the American West. Their traditional territories encompassed present-day Colorado, Wyoming, Nebraska, and Kansas, a testament to their mobility and expertise in traversing the expansive plains.

The journey of the Arapaho began far east of the Great Plains, in the region of present-day Minnesota. Prior to the 17th century, they were a sedentary people, cultivating crops and establishing permanent villages within the eastern woodlands. This way of life was dramatically altered by the westward expansion of European settlers, which spurred a migration towards the open plains. This movement was not merely a relocation; it was a complete transformation of their culture and subsistence strategies. They transitioned from farmers to nomadic hunters, their lives inextricably linked to the movements of the great buffalo herds that roamed the plains.

The Arapaho, identifying themselves as "Inuna-Ina," which translates to "our people," speak a language rooted in the Algonquian language family. This linguistic connection highlights their close relationship with neighboring tribes, most notably the Cheyenne. As the Arapaho moved westward, they forged a strong alliance with the Cheyenne, based on shared language, cultural practices, and a common dependence on the buffalo. Later, they also formed loose alliances with the powerful Sioux Confederacy, further solidifying their presence and influence on the Great Plains.

Over time, the Arapaho nation evolved into two distinct groups: the Northern Arapaho and the Southern Arapaho. This division reflected the geographic spread of the tribe and their adaptation to different ecological niches within the plains. The Northern Arapaho established themselves along the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, near the headwaters of the Platte River. This location provided them with access to crucial resources, including water, timber, and diverse game. The Southern Arapaho, in contrast, migrated further south, settling along the Arkansas River. This region offered abundant grazing lands for buffalo and other game animals, contributing to their successful adaptation to the southern plains environment.

The teepee, a conical tent made from buffalo hides, became the iconic dwelling of the Arapaho. These portable structures were perfectly suited to their nomadic lifestyle, providing shelter from the harsh weather conditions of the plains while allowing for easy relocation as they followed the buffalo herds. The buffalo was not just a source of food for the Arapaho; it was the cornerstone of their entire existence. Every part of the animal was utilized, from its meat for sustenance to its hide for clothing and shelter, its bones for tools, and its sinews for thread. In addition to buffalo, the Arapaho hunted elk and deer, fished in rivers and streams, and gathered a variety of berries and plants to supplement their diet. In times of scarcity, they were also known to consume dog meat, demonstrating their resourcefulness and adaptability in challenging circumstances.

The social structure of the Arapaho was based on small, independent bands, primarily determined by kinship. These bands provided a sense of community and support, while also allowing for individual autonomy. Members were free to move between bands, fostering flexibility and social cohesion within the larger tribal structure. A key event in the life of the Arapaho was the annual Sun Dance Festival, an eight-day ceremony held during the Summer Solstice. This gathering brought together all the bands for a time of spiritual renewal, social interaction, and preparation for the great summer buffalo hunt.

The Sun Dance was a profound expression of Arapaho spirituality and a vital component of their cultural identity. A large, open-air Sun Dance Lodge was constructed in the center of the camp, using wooden poles and branches. The Sun Dance pole, a sacred symbol of the connection between the earth and the heavens, stood at the heart of the lodge. Participants in the dance fasted for extended periods, adorned their bodies with symbolic colors, and wore aprons, wristlets, and anklets. The dancers would fix their gaze upon the sun and engage in hypnotic dances, often involving self-sacrifice. In some instances, dancers would be impaled to the Sun Dance pole with small stakes inserted into their skin. This act of sacrifice was intended to demonstrate their devotion to the Great Spirit and to seek visions and blessings for the tribe. The ability to endure the pain without showing any signs of suffering was seen as a sign of spiritual strength and could lead to a powerful vision.

The Sun Dance held paramount significance in the religious life, but the Arapaho also embraced other spiritual practices, including the Ghost Dance religion that gained popularity in the 1880s. Their belief system centered on Be He Teiht, the overall creator, and emphasized the interconnectedness of humans, animals, and the natural world. The Arapaho held deep respect for the wisdom of their elders, recognizing their knowledge and experience as invaluable resources for guiding the tribe.

By 1840, the Arapaho had established peaceful relations with several neighboring tribes, including the Sioux, Kiowa, and Comanche. However, they remained in conflict with the Shoshone, Ute, and Pawnee until they were eventually confined to reservations. The arrival of European settlers brought new challenges to the Arapaho and other Plains tribes. Initially, the Arapaho maintained friendly relations with the newcomers and engaged in trade. However, as the pace of western expansion accelerated, the Arapaho found themselves increasingly displaced from their traditional lands. The indiscriminate slaughter of buffalo by white hunters further threatened their way of life, as the buffalo was their primary source of sustenance and cultural identity.

In 1851, the U.S. Government signed a treaty with the Northern Arapaho and Cheyenne, granting them a vast territory encompassing portions of Wyoming, Colorado, Kansas, and Nebraska. However, this treaty was short-lived. The discovery of gold in 1858 triggered a massive influx of white settlers into the region, leading to the violation of the treaty and further encroachment upon Arapaho lands. In 1867, the Treaty of Medicine Lodge forced the Northern Arapaho onto a reservation in Wind River, Wyoming, alongside their traditional enemies, the Shoshone. The Southern Arapaho were placed on a reservation in Oklahoma with the Southern Cheyenne. Over time, the two tribes’ cultures became more alike. In 1892, the Oklahoma Territory was opened to white settlement, and the Native Americans received allotments in severalty, with the rights of American citizenship.

Today, the Northern Arapaho reside on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming, a 2.2 million-acre reserve shared with the Eastern Shoshone. The Southern Arapaho are located in Oklahoma, where they continue to maintain their cultural heritage and traditions. Despite the challenges they have faced throughout history, the Arapaho people have persevered, demonstrating their resilience and commitment to preserving their unique identity. Their story serves as a powerful reminder of the complex and often tragic history of Native Americans in the United States.