Borax Mining in Death Valley, California
Death Valley, a land of extremes, evokes images of scorching heat, arid landscapes, and seemingly insurmountable challenges. Yet, beneath its harsh exterior lies a history rich in resource extraction, most notably the saga of borax mining in Death Valley, California. This narrative is not merely about digging up a mineral; it’s a tale of human ingenuity, perseverance, and the relentless pursuit of economic opportunity in one of the most unforgiving environments on Earth.
The story of borax mining in Death Valley, California begins in the mid-19th century, following initial commercial production near Clear Lake, north of San Francisco, between 1864 and 1868. While that region enjoyed a brief period of prosperity, the focus soon shifted eastward. By the early 1870s, significant and purer deposits of borax were discovered in the alkaline marshes of eastern California and western Nevada. Locations like Columbus and Teel’s Marsh became points of interest, but the true potential lay further south, within the forbidding expanse of Death Valley.
As early as 1874, promising borax claims emerged in the Saline Valley flats, northwest of Death Valley. However, these initial discoveries faced considerable hurdles. The absence of railroad infrastructure, the extreme climate that pushed men and machinery to their limits, and the relatively low richness of the ore hampered widespread development. Only limited progress was made during this period, as the economic viability of large-scale borax mining in Death Valley, California remained uncertain. Simultaneously, minor production efforts commenced at Searles Lake in San Bernardino County, California, west of the Slate Range. The construction and operation of a refinery there ultimately transformed the valley into one of the most extensively worked and most productive borax areas of the region. Neighboring deposits were subsequently found in marshes near Resting Spring, southeast of Death Valley, and on the salt pan north of the mouth of Furnace Creek.
A pivotal moment arrived in 1881 with the discovery of borax north of Furnace Creek’s mouth by Aaron and Rose Winters. Recognizing the potential, William T. Coleman and Company swiftly acquired their holdings for $20,000. Coleman established the Greenland Salt and Borax Mining Company, which later became the Harmony Borax Mining Company. In 1882, the Harmony Borax Works, a modest settlement of adobe and stone structures including a refinery, began operations. South of the works, the Furnace Creek Ranch was established as a supply depot for the company’s workforce and livestock. Nearby, the Amargosa Borax Works was established in the vicinity of Resting Spring. This facility operated primarily during the summer months when the intense heat made refining processes in the valley less efficient. Adding to the early borax endeavors, a smaller operation, the Eagle Borax Works, was launched by a Frenchman named Isadore Daunet in 1881, located further down the valley near Bennett’s Well. Unfortunately, the Eagle Borax Works was short-lived, closing in 1884 due to operational inefficiencies combined with personal misfortunes leading to Daunet’s suicide. The fact that any of these early ventures managed to succeed, even marginally, is remarkable given their isolation from transportation networks and the daily hardships endured by workers in the harsh desert environment.
The borate being extracted from the salt flats of Death Valley was primarily ulexite, which appeared as "cotton balls" scattered across the surface. This material was harvested and then refined through evaporation and crystallization. Initially, it was believed that ulexite was the only commercially viable form of naturally occurring borax. However, further exploration by Coleman Company prospectors and others revealed that these playa borates were secondary deposits resulting from the leaching of borate lime beds. The primary deposit, a richer form of borate later named colemanite in honor of William T. Coleman, occurred in beds and veins similar to those found in quartz mining operations. In 1883, three men, Philander Lee, Harry Spiller, and Billy Yount, stumbled upon a large mountain of this ore south of Furnace Creek Wash, nestled in the foothills of the Black Mountains.
They sold their claim, known as Monte Blanco, to Coleman, reportedly for $4,000, effectively securing their fortune from the burgeoning borax industry. Within a year, an even larger deposit was discovered east of the Greenwater Range, approximately seven miles southwest of Death Valley Junction. This discovery suggested that this was the southernmost point of a rich colemanite belt stretching northwest to southeast along Furnace Creek Wash towards Furnace Creek Ranch. Coleman acquired this property as well, naming it the Lila C.
Despite their potential, the exploitation of these significant deposits was delayed for several reasons. Firstly, unlike the surface deposits, these larger, concentrated ore bodies required underground mining techniques. Secondly, the refinement of colemanite demanded more sophisticated methods as it was not easily soluble in hot water. Thirdly, the absence of transportation infrastructure into this undeveloped region presented a major logistical challenge. Fourthly, there was no nearby supply center to support mining operations. Fifthly, the extreme summer heat rendered mining activity impossible during that season. Lastly, and perhaps most importantly, Coleman’s existing desert refineries were performing well, seemingly justifying the continued operation of these facilities for the time being.
The development of these extensive and pure deposits was spurred by the discovery of more colemanite ledges in the Calico Mountains, located twelve miles northeast of the railroad at Daggett in San Bernardino County, in 1883. The proximity of these deposits to the railroad posed a significant threat to Coleman’s Death Valley operations. Recognizing this, Coleman promptly purchased the most promising lodes and began research at his Alameda, California refinery to develop a profitable method for refining this material. In the meantime, his Harmony and Amargosa works continued production, sustaining his market presence.
In 1890, Coleman’s financial empire dissolved, leading Francis Marion "Borax" Smith to acquire his holdings at Borate in the Death and Amargosa Valleys, as well as his Alameda refinery. Smith consolidated these assets, along with other properties, into the Pacific Coast Borax Company. He also assumed control of the colemanite deposits in the Furnace Creek Wash area. A decline in borax prices, caused by imports from Italy and a subsequent oversupply in the market, prompted Smith to shut down his Death Valley operations and focus on the Borate mines, where richer ore could be refined using less expensive processes. These mines became the first major underground borate workings in the United States, and from 1890 to 1907, Borate became the nation’s leading producer of borax and boracic acid. However, as the workings deepened, the cost of further development became prohibitive, prompting Smith to reconsider his Death Valley reserves.
The isolation of the Lila C Mine hindered its development, but the profits generated from the Calico operation were sufficient to subsidize the construction of the Tonopah & Tidewater Railroad, which was planned to extend from Ludlow on the Santa Fe line to Death Valley Junction and on to Goldfield, Nevada. Mining operations at the Lila C Mine commenced before the railroad was completed, with the initial ore transported to market by the trusty 20-mule teams, once again called into service. The T & T Railroad began construction in May 1905 and reached Death Valley Junction by 1907. A seven-mile spur line was immediately built, connecting to the Lila C camp at Ryan Station. The Borate operations were abandoned, and all its equipment was relocated to the new area, where a calcining plant was also installed.
The Pacific Coast Borax Company maintained its interest in its holdings further west near Death Valley. However, as reported in a 1909 newspaper article, the low price of borax threatened to force the abandonment of the Lila C Mine in favor of the more easily mined deposits of Mount Blanco, which existed in seemingly inexhaustible quantities. This shift was made possible by the construction of a narrow-gauge railroad from Ryan to the deposits. As the ore at the Lila C began to dwindle around 1914, plans were already underway to relocate operations to reserves further west on the edge of Death Valley. Company engineers determined that these large deposits would sustain the company for years, with additional resources available on the Monte Blanco and Corkscrew claims.
A new railroad was necessary to access these deposits, leading to the construction of the Death Valley Narrow-gauge Railroad, which operated from Death Valley Junction to the newly opened mines. In January 1915, the Lila C Mine was closed, though not entirely abandoned, and borax operations shifted to the new town of Devair, soon renamed (New) Ryan, on the western edge of the Greenwater Range overlooking Death Valley. A new calcining plant was built at Death Valley Junction to process the lower-grade ores from the Played Out and Biddy McCarty Mines. According to the original Death Valley Railroad survey, Ryan was intended as a temporary terminus for a line that would eventually extend down Furnace Creek Wash to the Corkscrew Canyon and Monte Blanco deposits. However, this extension never materialized because the Ryan mines, including the Played Out, Upper and Lower Biddy, Grand View, Lizzie V. Oakley, and Widow, proved to be even more productive as development progressed until 1928.
In 1928, a deposit of easily accessible rasorite, which was more economical to mine due to its proximity to a new processing plant, was discovered near Kramer (later Boron), California, once again prompting a shift in mining operations. When the Death Valley Junction concentrating plant closed in 1928, a significant era in borax production and processing in the Death Valley region came to an end. From then until 1956, borate mining virtually ceased, with mines maintained on a standby basis and producing only small quantities to fulfill special orders. This period of inactivity lasted until Tenneco, Inc. began open-pit operations at the Boraxo Mine near Ryan in 1971. Today, borax mining in Death Valley, California continues, albeit on a smaller scale than in its heyday.
Borax itself has a wide array of applications. It is an ingredient in numerous detergents, cosmetics, enamel glazes, insecticides, fire retardants, and more.
For those interested in learning more about the history of borax mining in Death Valley, California, the primary Death Valley National Park Visitor Center and Museum at Furnace Creek provides additional information, and park rangers are available to answer questions.
Additionally, a privately owned Borax Museum is located at the Furnace Creek Ranch, housed in the oldest building in Death Valley. Originally, the building served as an office, a bunkhouse, and an ore-checking station for the borax miners. Initially located in Twenty Mule Team Canyon, it was later moved to Furnace Creek. The museum features a mineral collection and exhibits on the history of borax in Death Valley. Outside the museum building, you’ll find an array of mining and transportation equipment.