Causes of the Civil War

By Eli Greenawalt Foster, 1899

The American Civil War, a cataclysmic event in the nation’s history, was not born overnight. It was the culmination of decades of simmering tensions, disagreements, and seemingly irreconcilable differences between the North and the South. While many factors contributed to the conflict, two primary issues stand out as the main drivers: slavery and states’ rights. These issues, presented to the public in various forms, fueled the growing divide between the two regions, ultimately leading to the outbreak of hostilities.

The path to war was paved with compromises, each intended to quell the rising discord. However, these compromises, such as the Missouri Compromise, often proved to be temporary fixes, only serving to deepen the underlying animosity. The election of Abraham Lincoln, a Republican candidate who openly opposed the expansion of slavery, proved to be the final straw. The series of events grew increasingly bitter and antagonistic, culminating in the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter in South Carolina on April 12, 1861, marking the official start of the Causes of the Civil War.

The Nullification Crisis in South Carolina in 1832 served as an early and significant demonstration of the doctrine of states’ rights. This doctrine, which championed the autonomy of individual states over the authority of the federal government, ultimately led to the secession ordinances of the Southern states and the devastating conflict that followed.

State Rights

From the very beginning of the nation’s history, politicians held differing views regarding the nature of the union that bound the states together. These divergent interpretations of the relationship between the states and the federal government laid the groundwork for future conflict.

One school of thought, embraced by many in the South, maintained that the Union was a voluntary league or confederation of independent states. According to this theory, any state could dissolve its ties to the Union if it felt that the federal government had failed to protect its rights, whether expressed or assumed. In essence, this view asserted that states retained ultimate sovereignty and could reclaim their former status as separate, independent entities.

Conversely, another group of statesmen argued that the Federal Union constituted a single, unified nation with a strong central government. They believed that no state could unilaterally secede from the Union without the consent of all the other states. This perspective emphasized the indivisibility of the nation and the supremacy of federal law.

These conflicting interpretations of the U.S. Constitution remained largely theoretical until specific, contentious issues arose that demanded resolution. Among the most significant of these issues were tariffs and slavery. The South, heavily reliant on agricultural industries, advocated for free trade, believing that tariffs would harm their economy. The North, with its burgeoning manufacturing sector, favored protective tariffs to shield its industries from foreign competition.

The Tariff Act of 1832 ignited intense opposition in the South, particularly in South Carolina. The state declared the act null and void and threatened to secede from the Union if the federal government attempted to enforce it. President Andrew Jackson responded swiftly and decisively, dispatching troops to the rebellious state to restore order. Henry Clay’s Compromise of 1833 temporarily appeased the leaders of South Carolina.

However, the underlying principle of secession remained alive, albeit shifted from the tariff issue to the more complex and deeply divisive issue of slavery extension. The Causes of the Civil War were far from resolved.

Differences Between the North and South

The contrasting characteristics of the people who settled the North and the South further exacerbated the growing divide. These two sections of the country, though largely populated by individuals of English descent, developed distinct thoughts, habits, and customs that reflected their unique origins and experiences.

The North was primarily settled by Puritans, who sought religious freedom and a purer system of faith and worship after fleeing oppression and religious persecution in England. These early settlers were largely from the middle class, consisting of laborers and minor landowners who sought to establish homes and communities for themselves.

In contrast, the South was largely settled by Cavaliers, who remained loyal to the English Crown and its established religion. These settlers often belonged to the aristocracy and nobility and were driven by the pursuit of wealth and opportunity.

These two distinct groups of early settlers profoundly influenced the development of their respective regions. They established the customs and institutions that would shape the lives of future generations of settlers. The nature of the soil, the climate, and the character of the settlers in the North fostered the cultivation of small estates. In the South, however, the idea of large estates, imported from England, was perpetuated by the climate and the introduction of African slavery.

The North was strongly influenced by a love of liberty and a desire for equal opportunities. Free schools were established, manufacturing industries emerged, and cities grew rapidly. The Causes of the Civil War were taking shape as the North championed freedom and opportunity.

The South, on the other hand, remained largely agricultural, and educational opportunities were often limited to the wealthy elite. This stark contrast in the character of the people, the industries of the two sections, and the different climate and soil conditions made slave labor more profitable in the South than in the North. These factors ultimately contributed to the divergent paths taken by the two regions, with one becoming a free state and the other a slaveholding state.

Growth Of Slavery

Slavery was introduced to the colonies in 1619 in Jamestown, Virginia. Despite protests against the inhumanity of the slave trade, the importation of slaves continued, and by the end of the American Revolution, the number of enslaved people in the states reached approximately 600,000.

Europe’s insatiable greed for wealth led it to weave slavery into its colonial policy, seeking to maximize revenues. While slaves were present in all colonies, they were far more prevalent in the South than in the North. The Virginia House of Burgesses protested the "inhumanity of the slave trade," but their pleas were ignored. South Carolina even passed an act in 1760 prohibiting the importation of slaves, but the British government refused to sanction it. Other colonies also attempted to restrict the trade, but their efforts were largely unsuccessful.

The invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793 dramatically increased the demand for enslaved labor. This ingenious machine allowed one person to accomplish the work of several hundred, greatly expanding cotton cultivation and driving up the demand for slaves in the South, where cotton thrived.

Despite restrictions on slave traffic and the prohibition of foreign importation in 1808, the number of slaves continued to increase rapidly. By the time the Civil War began, the United States held approximately 4,000,000 enslaved people. Southern opinion, initially viewing slavery as an evil, gradually shifted, with many coming to regard it as a moral, social, and political good, an institution ordained by Providence to civilize and educate the black race.

Movements Toward Freedom Of The Slaves

By the opening of the Civil War, the United States held more slaves than all other countries combined. These enslaved people were confined to the states south of Pennsylvania and the Ohio River. All Northern states had abolished slavery before or shortly after adopting the U.S. Constitution, beginning with Vermont in 1777 and Pennsylvania in 1780. New Jersey was the last to abolish slavery in 1804.

Despite America’s self-proclaimed title as the "land of the free," slavery clung to its soil with greater tenacity than it did to European countries. Great Britain granted freedom to the slaves in its colonies in 1838, and the French government decreed the immediate emancipation of slaves in its colonies in 1848. Other European powers followed suit. Many South American republics, including Mexico in 1829, also provided for the abolition of slavery.

Even some of the nation’s Founding Fathers opposed the institution of slavery. George Washington provided for the emancipation of his own slaves in his will. John Adams believed that slavery should be abolished in the United States. Thomas Jefferson, himself a slaveholder, famously declared, "I tremble for my country when I remember that God is just." Patrick Henry, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison also opposed the principle of slavery.

In 1787, the country, including Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, was organized into the Northwest Territory. Freedom was guaranteed to this region by the inclusion of a clause stating that "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall exist in this Territory, otherwise than in punishment of crimes." While this anti-slavery clause was rejected for the territory south of the Ohio River, leading to the formation of four slave states (Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi), the territory north of the Ohio River remained permanently committed to the principles of freedom. The Causes of the Civil War continued to intensify.

Missouri Compromise of 1820

In 1803, the boundaries of the United States expanded to include the vast region west of the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, known as the Louisiana Territory. Missouri was the first state formed out of this region to apply for admission to the Union, raising the contentious question of whether it should be admitted as a free state or a slave state.

Prior to the abolition of slavery in the North and the admission of free states north of the Ohio River, slavery was not considered a sectional issue. Many in the South during the Revolutionary period believed in the gradual emancipation of slaves. However, sentiments had shifted, and their primary concern became the perpetuation of the institution.

The Missouri Compromise, a landmark piece of legislation, sought to address the growing tensions. Maine was admitted as a free state, and Missouri was admitted as a slave state, maintaining the balance between free and slave states in the Senate. The compromise also prohibited slavery in the remaining Louisiana Territory north of the 36°30′ parallel.

However, the Missouri Compromise failed to resolve the underlying issues. Southern leaders continued to feel that their rights had been infringed upon, and the compromise ultimately proved to be a temporary solution to a much larger problem. The Causes of the Civil War were not resolved by this compromise.

Mexican-American War, 1845-48

In 1821, Mexico declared its independence from Spain and established a republic. However, in 1829, the President of Mexico proclaimed the abolition of slavery within its territory, a decision that Texas refused to comply with.

The slave power in the United States provided financial and material support to Texas, aiding in stirring up a revolution with the express purpose of annexing more slave states to the Union. Sam Houston, former Governor of Tennessee, led the revolution, and in 1836, Texas became a republic independent of Mexico.

Texas applied for admission to the Union the following year, but opposition in the House and Senate, exposing the duplicity with which the Jackson administration had acted toward Mexico, silenced the agitators for annexation. However, efforts to expand slave territory continued, and on March 1, 1845, a joint resolution annexing Texas received the President’s signature.

This resolution also pledged the faith of the United States to permit the formation of new states from this territory, not exceeding four. Texas became a full-fledged state in the Union, and President James Polk sent troops to occupy the territory between the Nueces and the Rio Grande, which Mexico claimed as its soil.

The ensuing war resulted in the cession of territory now comprising the states and territories of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming to the United States.

The Compromise Of 1850 (the Omnibus Bill)

In 1850, California’s application for admission to the Union as a free state ignited renewed tensions between the North and the South. The acquisition of new territory following the Mexican-American War intensified the debate over the expansion of slavery. The primary objective in annexing Texas and waging the Mexican-American War was to acquire more slave territory.

After a heated debate, the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to exclude slavery from all territory acquired as a result of the war, was defeated. The admission of Arkansas as a slave state in 1836 was balanced by the admission of Michigan as a free state. The admission of Iowa as a free state was balanced by the admission of Florida as a slave state, despite Florida’s population falling short of the required number for statehood.

The admission of California as a free state would disrupt the equilibrium between free and slave states, giving the North the most substantial benefits of the Mexican-American War and undermining the objective for which it had been waged.

In the midst of this crisis, Henry Clay proposed a compromise bill, but it was initially stripped of provision after provision. Ultimately, the bill provided only for the territorial government of Utah. However, the rejected provisions were later taken up individually and passed with little change, effectively recreating the Omnibus Bill. The Causes of the Civil War were not eased by this compromise.

The Omnibus Bill contained the following provisions:

1. California was admitted as a free state.
2. Territorial governments were established in New Mexico and Utah, without reference to slavery.
3. Texas was paid $10,000,000 for the relinquishment of a portion of its territory.
4. The slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia.
5. A more stringent fugitive slave law was enacted.

The last clause, known as the Fugitive Slave Law, sparked intense opposition in the North. Northern states passed personal liberty laws, prohibiting state officers from assisting in the arrest and return of any slave. The passage of the Omnibus Bill marked the demise of the Whig Party and contained the seeds of new and greater conflicts.

The Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854

In 1854, Stephen A. Douglas introduced a bill to organize the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. The bill stipulated that the people of these territories would decide for themselves whether to enter the Union as free or slave states.

This bill effectively repealed the Missouri Compromise, which had guaranteed freedom to this section of the country, and opened up a territory nearly as large as the original 13 states to slavery. Kansas, being the more southerly of the two territories, was considered more suitable for the institution of slavery.

Kansas became the battleground for the opposing forces of freedom and slavery. Pro-slavery societies were formed in the South, and pro-slavery immigrants poured into the new territory from Missouri. At the same time, anti-slavery emigrants were sent to Kansas from the North, supported by the Emigrant Aid Society.

At the elections, many Missourians crossed the border, intimidated election officials, and cast thousands of illegal votes for pro-slavery candidates. The anti-slavery settlers, who had cast most of the legal votes, repudiated the election and chose their own officers.

With two rival legislatures and the opposing parties of freedom and slavery bitterly contending for supremacy, the territory descended into civil war. The burning of houses, sacking of towns, and loss of life continued for several years.

This bloody conflict, known as "Bleeding Kansas," awakened many consciences to the true intentions and purposes of the slave power. Despite the moral and material support of the President and cabinet for the pro-slavery party, Kansas was ultimately won to the cause of freedom and admitted to the Union in 1861. The Causes of the Civil War were inflamed by the events in Kansas.

Dred Scott Decision, 1857

Dred Scott, an enslaved man, was taken by his master from Missouri to Illinois, a free state, and then to Fort Snelling, near St. Paul, Minnesota. After marrying with his master’s consent, he was taken back to Missouri in 1838 and sold to John P.A. Sanford.

Scott sued for his freedom, arguing that his residence in a free state and a territory from which the Missouri Compromise excluded slavery established his freedom. The case eventually reached the Supreme Court, where it became a national contest for constitutional principles between the slavery and anti-slavery parties.

The Supreme Court ruled against Scott, declaring that "no negro, slave or free, who was of slave ancestry, was entitled to sue in the United States courts." The court also declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, asserting that slave owners could take their slaves into any of the territories and that the people of those territories could not lawfully hinder them.

This decision, considered one of the most infamous in the Court’s history, effectively made slavery national. However, instead of extending the institution, as intended by the majority of judges, it united the people of the North in more determined opposition to the expansion of slavery.

Anti-slavery Publications

The slavery question divided the people of the North and South. The South’s efforts to extend the institution caused the bitterest friction between the two sections. Many in the North did not initially intend to abolish slavery in the Southern states at the beginning of the Civil War.

However, inspired individuals in the North devoted their talents to the abolition of slavery. The press and the platform were used to awaken the public conscience to the great national wrong.

William Lloyd Garrison’s Liberator, Frederick Douglass’s North Star, and Reverend Elijah P. Lovejoy’s anti-slavery paper all played a significant role in shaping public opinion. John G. Whittier’s anti-slavery poems also contributed to the growing sentiment against slavery.

Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin had a profound impact on public opinion, unifying and antagonizing the Northern conscience to the iniquities of the slave power. Hinton Rowan Helper’s The Impending Crisis of the South argued against slavery on moral and economic grounds.

The constant discussion and agitation aroused fears and animosities. The mail was regularly searched in many Southern post offices, and anti-slavery literature was burned. The churches became violently agitated over the issue, and Methodist, Baptist, and Presbyterian denominations separated, North and South, on the subject of slavery.

Anti-slavery Parties

The Liberty Party, the Free-Soil Party, and the Republican Party all emerged as political forces opposing the expansion of slavery. The Republican Party, formed by a coalition of Whigs, Wilmot-Proviso Democrats, and Free Soilers, nominated John C. Fremont as its first presidential candidate in 1856.

In 1860, the election pitted Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate opposed to the expansion of slavery, against John C. Breckinridge, the Southern Democratic candidate favoring the extension of slavery; Stephen A. Douglas, the Northern Democratic candidate advocating for popular sovereignty; and John Bell, the Constitutional Union Party candidate. Lincoln’s victory signaled the end of compromise.

John Brown’s Raid, 1859

John Brown, an abolitionist who had been active in the conflict in Kansas, conceived a plan to free the slaves of the South. In October 1859, he and 21 associates attacked Harper’s Ferry, West Virginia, seizing the armory and hoping to incite a slave uprising.

However, the raid was quickly suppressed, and Brown was captured, tried, and executed. Despite the failure of his plan, Brown became a martyr for the cause of liberating enslaved people, and his spirit was present in many battles that followed. The Causes of the Civil War gained a martyr.

Secession

Following Lincoln’s election, South Carolina called a convention to consider an ordinance of secession, which unanimously passed on December 20, 1860. Other Southern states followed suit, encouraged by President James Buchanan’s inaction.

Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina all seceded from the Union. The seceding states seized United States forts, arsenals, and customs houses and formed the Confederate States of America, with Jefferson Davis as President.

Crittenden Compromise, December 1860

A Senate committee, led by John J. Crittenden of Kentucky, made a final effort to avert war by proposing a compromise that would guarantee against the arbitrary abolition of slavery, restrain federal interference with the interstate transportation of slaves, and establish the Missouri Compromise line as a permanent barrier between free and slave states. However, the vital points of the compromise were rejected by members from both the North and South.

Inauguration Of Lincoln, March 4, 1861

Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated on March 4, 1861. In his inaugural address, he stated that he had no intention of interfering with slavery in the states where it existed but that he would uphold the laws of the Union in all states. He declared that no state could lawfully leave the Union and that the issue of civil war was in the hands of the Southern people. However, the conspirators saw this as a challenge to war. The Causes of the Civil War had reached their boiling point.

By Eli Greenawalt Foster, 1899. Compiled and edited by Kathy Alexander/Legends of America, updated March 2024.