Chief Joseph – Leader of the Nez Perce
By Charles A. Eastman (Ohiyesa)
“Let me be a free man, free to travel, free to stop, free to work, free to trade where I choose, free to choose my own teachers, free to follow the religion of my fathers, free to talk, think, and act for myself – and I will obey every law or submit to the penalty. Hin-mah-too-yah-lat-kekht has spoken for his people.” – Chief Joseph
The story of Chief Joseph, or Hinmatóowyalahtq̓it in his native Nez Perce language, is a poignant chapter in the history of the American West. His life, marked by both profound peace and heartbreaking conflict, embodies the struggle of Native American tribes against the relentless expansion of the United States. The Nez Perce, like many other tribes too expansive to be governed by a single leader, operated as a confederacy of independent bands, each holding its own sovereignty.
This loose structure meant that decisions impacting the entire tribe were often complex and fraught with potential for disagreement. Chief Joseph inherited a particularly challenging situation, one that would test his leadership and force him to make impossible choices.
The Nez Perce people were divided into several bands, each with its own territory and leadership. Chief Joseph and his followers resided in the Imnaha or Grande Ronde Valley, nestled within the present-day state of Oregon. This valley, renowned for its fertile lands and abundant resources, was considered among the most desirable regions in the area. The beauty and bounty of this land were deeply intertwined with the Nez Perce identity, forming the heart of their existence and their connection to their ancestors.
The seeds of conflict were sown with the encroachment of settlers and the negotiation of treaties. When some bands of the Nez Perce entered into treaty agreements with the U.S. government, Joseph’s band, located at Lapwai, Idaho, remained uninvolved. The elder Chief Joseph, on his deathbed, cautioned his son, then a young man of about twenty-two or twenty-three, to never relinquish their ancestral home. He emphasized that he had never signed any treaty relinquishing their claim to the land.
These peaceful, non-treaty Nez Perce were largely unaware of the extent of the land ceded by other bands until the government agent presented them with the stark order to evacuate. Their refusal to comply was an instinctive defense of their heritage, their way of life, and their very identity. It was a decision born of deep-seated loyalty to their ancestors and a profound connection to their land.
When diplomatic efforts failed, the agent, influenced by ambitious settlers eager to seize the coveted lands, sought the intervention of the U.S. Army. General O. O. Howard, a figure often referred to as a "Christian soldier," was tasked with the unenviable duty of enforcing the government’s order. He convened a council with Chief Joseph and his leading men, presenting them with the ultimatum: obey the order to relocate or face forceful eviction.
One can only imagine the weight of that moment. Chief Joseph, still a young man with limited experience in war or political maneuvering, found himself at the center of a crisis that threatened to shatter his people’s world. Raised to respect the wisdom of his elders, and having been exposed to Christian teachings of brotherhood through his brother Ollicut’s education at Missionary Spaulding’s school, he responded with measured words. He explained that neither he nor his father had ever consented to any treaty relinquishing their lands, that no other band of the Nez Perce had the authority to speak on their behalf, and that dispossessing a peaceful and friendly band would be an act of profound injustice.
General Howard, however, conveyed the government’s unyielding stance: they had no rights, no say in the matter, and were expected only to obey. While some of the lesser chiefs advocated for immediate resistance, Chief Joseph maintained his composure, seeking to de-escalate the situation and explore avenues for a peaceful resolution. He requested thirty days to gather and dispose of their livestock, a request that was granted.
Despite Chief Joseph’s efforts to maintain peace and adherence to his promise, the encroaching settlers, driven by greed and impatience, deliberately provoked a crisis. Acts of violence and depredation were committed, and when some Nez Perce retaliated, it provided the pretext that the settlers had been seeking. The cry went out to suppress the "bloodthirsty savages," ignoring the injustices and provocations that had fueled the conflict.
Chief Joseph recounted the immense pressure he faced from his people during those thirty days to resist the government’s order. He admitted that the arguments for resistance resonated deeply with him. He struggled with the weight of his father’s dying words, "Do not give up our home!" The conflict between his desire for peace and his responsibility to honor his father’s legacy created a profound inner turmoil.
Among the leaders who advocated for resistance were Too-hul-hul-sote, White Bird, and Looking Glass, all respected figures within the Nez Perce community. Countering their influence were individuals cultivated by government agents, often labeled as "great friendly chiefs." These individuals, often viewed with suspicion by the Nez Perce, further eroded trust in the government’s intentions. The cultural differences in communication styles also contributed to the growing chasm, with the Nez Perce valuing directness and honesty, while the white negotiators often employed ambiguous language and deceptive tactics.
The murder of an Indian, committed during Chief Joseph‘s absence, served as the breaking point. Upon his return, he found his people resolved to fight to defend their homeland. The rugged terrain favored the Nez Perce, offering the potential to inflict significant losses on the army, but the long-term prospects of holding out were uncertain. Even Ollicut, Joseph’s younger brother, had been won over to the cause of resistance. With no other recourse, Chief Joseph embarked on a new chapter, transforming from a peaceful leader into a military strategist of exceptional skill, orchestrating one of the most remarkable retreats in military history.
This transformation was not merely a personal one; it was a reflection of the collective will of his people to resist oppression and defend their way of life. This retreat, viewed by military experts as a masterpiece of strategy and tactics, was all the more remarkable considering that the Nez Perce were not a war-like tribe in the mold of the Sioux, Cheyenne, or Ute. They were primarily hunters and fishermen, thrust into a conflict they had sought to avoid.
At the initial war council, Chief Joseph’s message was one of somber realism: "I have tried to save you from suffering and sorrow. Resistance means all of that. We are few. There are many. You can see all we have at a glance. They have food and ammunition in abundance. We must suffer great hardship and loss." Despite the grim outlook, he quietly began formulating plans for the defense of his people and their families.
The overarching strategy was to execute a successful retreat into Montana, with the ultimate goal of joining forces with the hostile Sioux and Cheyenne tribes under the leadership of Sitting Bull. To facilitate this retreat, Chief Joseph implemented a sophisticated relay scouting system, utilizing multiple teams of scouts to provide continuous surveillance and early warnings of approaching threats. He also employed decoy scouts to mislead the army’s Indian scouts.
The primary challenge facing Chief Joseph was to navigate a retreat while safeguarding the vulnerable members of his community: women, children, and the elderly, along with essential supplies and household belongings. To address this challenge, he established an auxiliary corps responsible for managing the retreat during each engagement, following a pre-determined plan and order. The women, unburdened by other responsibilities, were organized into an ambulance corps to provide care for the wounded.
A key element of Chief Joseph’s strategy was to establish a strong rear guard to confront General Howard’s command at White Bird Canyon. Every detail was meticulously planned, yet remained adaptable to the evolving circumstances, allowing individual leaders the freedom to react accordingly. The ambush that Chief Joseph orchestrated for the experienced General Howard was a testament to his strategic acumen. He anticipated a pursuit by a force of approximately two hundred and fifty soldiers.
He employed deception to mislead the pursuing forces, creating false trails to suggest imminent crossings of the Salmon River. Tents were deliberately pitched in plain view, while the women and children were concealed on inaccessible ridges, and the warriors were positioned in the canyon, ready to unleash a devastating volley upon the soldiers with minimal risk to themselves.
The ensuing battle served as a harsh lesson for the troops. While the soldiers displayed some combat prowess, the accompanying frontiersmen quickly descended into disarray. The Nez Perce warriors pursued them for nearly ten miles, capturing rifles and ammunition, and inflicting significant casualties.
Following the victory at White Bird Canyon, the Nez Perce crossed the river, executed a detour, recrossed at another point, and then continued their eastward journey. These maneuvers were designed to delay pursuit and buy valuable time. Chief Joseph estimated that it would take the army six or seven days to assemble a sufficient force to resume the pursuit, a prediction that proved remarkably accurate.
The epic retreat of Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce would ultimately cover over 1,170 miles across present-day Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana. The journey, marked by battles, hardship, and unwavering determination, would etch Chief Joseph‘s name into the annals of American history.