Confederate States of America
The Confederate States of America, often referred to as the Confederacy or the CSA, emerged in the early months of 1861 as an unrecognized political entity. It was forged from the secession of eleven states located in the southern region of the United States of America. This dramatic fracturing of the Union was the culmination of deep-seated tensions and disagreements, primarily centered on the institution of slavery, which had been festering for decades.
The states that formed the Confederacy were South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina. These states, bound by a shared economic system heavily reliant on enslaved labor and a distinct cultural identity, felt increasingly alienated from the Federal Government. Their grievances extended beyond the moral and ethical implications of slavery to encompass issues of states’ rights, economic policies perceived as favoring the North, westward expansion, modernization, and taxation. The seeds of discord, sown long before the official formation of the Confederate States of America, began to sprout into open conflict.
Though simmering tensions between the North and South had existed since the conclusion of the American Revolution in 1782, the disputes intensified significantly in the 1850s. This escalation occurred as the United States embarked on a period of rapid westward expansion, acquiring vast new territories.
The question of whether slavery should be permitted in these new territories became a major flashpoint. Southern factions vehemently advocated for the expansion of slavery, viewing it as essential to their economic survival and way of life. Conversely, the "Free Soilers," a diverse group of abolitionists, anti-slavery activists, and others opposed to the expansion of slavery, were determined to prevent its spread. This ideological clash erupted into violence, particularly in the territory of Kansas, where pro-slavery and anti-slavery forces engaged in armed conflict. This period of intense bloodshed and political turmoil became known as "Bleeding Kansas," a grim precursor to the larger conflict that would soon engulf the nation. "Bleeding Kansas" became one of the many precursors to the American Civil War. These battles pitted neighbor against neighbor in a struggle for the future of the nation.
The dispute over the expansion of slavery into new territories reached a critical point with the election of Abraham Lincoln as president on November 6, 1860. Although Lincoln did not advocate for federal laws abolishing slavery where it already existed, his stance against its expansion and his famous declaration that a "house divided against itself cannot stand" alarmed Southern leaders. Fearing that Lincoln’s administration would ultimately undermine the institution of slavery and their way of life, eleven Southern states ultimately chose to secede from the Union. The decision to form the Confederate States of America was a momentous one.
South Carolina was the first to secede from the Union on December 20, 1860. Within two months, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed suit. On February 4, 1861, delegates from these seceding states convened in Montgomery, Alabama, to formally organize the Confederate States of America. Just five days later, on February 9, a provisional government was established, with Jefferson Davis, a former U.S. Senator and Secretary of War, elected as its president. The initial Confederate flag, often called the "Stars and Bars," was adopted.
The attack on Fort Sumter, a U.S. military installation in Charleston, South Carolina, on April 12, 1861, marked the beginning of open hostilities between the Confederacy and the Union. Following the attack, President Lincoln issued a call for troops on April 15, 1861, to suppress the rebellion. In response, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The map of the United States was irrevocably altered.
Kentucky and Missouri, strategically important border states, initially declared neutrality in the conflict, as their populations were deeply divided in their loyalties. Over time, Kentucky gradually aligned itself with the Union, while Missouri remained bitterly divided throughout the war. The southern regions of New Mexico and Arizona also sided with the Confederacy. In Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), where the Union abandoned federal forts and installations, the Confederacy claimed control. This expansion of Confederate territory demonstrated the reach and ambition of the nascent nation.
The formation of the Confederate States of America also led to internal divisions within states. Union loyalists in western Virginia broke away from the state during the Civil War to form a new state called West Virginia, which was officially admitted to the Union in June 1863. Like other border states, West Virginia’s population had mixed loyalties, reflecting the complex and often tragic nature of the conflict.
The Confederate States of America was formally organized at a congress of delegates from South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, convened in Montgomery, Alabama, on February 4, 1861. Within days, a provisional government was established, and on February 9th, Jefferson Davis was appointed president, with Alexander H. Stephens serving as vice-president. The provisional government was intended to last only one year, and its constitution was not submitted to the states or their people for ratification. However, a "permanent" constitution was drafted in the following weeks, approved by Congress on March 11th, and submitted to the conventions of the seceded states. It was promptly adopted, though it did not take effect until February 22, 1862. The establishment of this government marked a pivotal moment in the history of the Confederate States of America.
The provisional government assumed all common and general functions that the states could not individually exercise. Texas joined the Confederacy in March, Virginia in April, North Carolina in May, and Tennessee and Arkansas in June. Large portions of Kentucky and Missouri also aligned with the South, sending delegates to the Confederate Congresses. The territory embraced by the Confederacy encompassed approximately 800,000 square miles, excluding holdings in the Indian Territory and New Mexico. The population of these states and parts of states was roughly 10,000,000, including about 4,000,000 African-Americans, most of whom were enslaved.
With its organization in place, the Confederate authorities dispatched commissioners to Europe and the Federal Government, seeking recognition as an independent power. The commissioners arrived in Washington, D.C., demanding jurisdiction over forts and other property of the U.S. government within the seceded states. Simultaneously, the Confederate Government assumed jurisdiction, expedited the organization of an army and navy, and allocated funds for these and other purposes, all without significant opposition from the people of the southern states. Dissatisfaction existed in the mountain districts, where slavery had less influence. The U.S. government refused to recognize the Confederate agents or cede any rights concerning the forts or other property. However, European powers acknowledged the Confederacy’s existence by granting it belligerent status under international law, a significant concession, especially regarding commercial matters and the application of the rules of war. Formal diplomatic recognition was widely anticipated. In the North, a strong faction, supported by New York’s financial interests, advocated for allowing the southern states to "depart in peace." Even President Abraham Lincoln initially considered this solution, and Secretary of State William H. Seward assured the southern commissioners that the forts and other federal property would be surrendered without conflict.
However, the implications of separation, the potential damage to northern commerce and manufacturing, boundary disputes, and the likelihood of future conflicts altered public sentiment. President Abraham Lincoln, recognizing the shift in public opinion, decided not to negotiate with the Southern representatives, particularly regarding the surrender of Fort Sumter. This decision was made between April 9th and 12th, 1861.
At the same time, Confederate leaders feared a potential restoration of the Union based on a compromise, such as the proposed Crittenden Compromise. Consequently, the Confederate Government found it necessary to maintain the support of its ardent followers and hasten a decision. The Confederate bombardment of Fort Sumter on the night of April 12, 1861, ignited the military spirit of both the North and South, leading to war.
President Abraham Lincoln’s call for 75,000 volunteers on April 15 resulted in the official loss of the Border States to the Federal Government. The addition of territory north of the lower southern states significantly boosted morale in the South. This led to the relocation of the Confederate capital from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, Virginia. In the early summer, the armies of the two sides prepared for conflict on the soil of northern Virginia.
The newly formed Confederate Government faced internal challenges. The initial Cabinet comprised individuals who had either opposed secession or had been rivals of Jefferson Davis for years. Vice-President Alexander Stephens had a strained relationship with Davis and had been a prominent opponent of secession as late as January 1861. The first Secretary of State, Robert Toombs, was also hostile to Davis. He resigned months after his appointment to join the Confederate States Army as a brigadier general in July 1861. Christopher Memminger, the first Secretary of the Treasury, had consistently opposed the separatist movement since 1832. L. Pope Walker, the first Secretary of War, had led the unionist forces of North Alabama. Even Davis himself had advised South Carolina against seceding as late as November 10, 1860.
Of the prominent generals appointed to lead the armies, only Albert Sidney Johnston supported the necessity of secession. Robert E. Lee had not been a state rights advocate, and lamented the "revolution" precipitated by the lower South in late April 1861. Joseph E. Johnston concurred, though his political background was less nationalist than Lee’s. In the Confederate Senate and House, a significant minority, sometimes a majority, consisted of leaders who had never believed in the wisdom of secession, although most acknowledged the right of a state to withdraw from the Union.
Despite persistent efforts by Confederate agents from 1861 to 1865 to secure recognition, they failed. The U.S. federal government refused any official communication that might be interpreted as recognition of the Confederacy’s existence as a separate power. U.S. Federal Courts deemed the Confederate States "an unlawful assemblage without corporate power."
The Confederacy hoped for European military intervention, particularly from England, believing that Europe could not endure the disruption of cotton supplies. However, these expectations proved incorrect. When the U.S. government clarified that any diplomatic recognition of the Confederacy would mean war with the United States, no nation was willing to risk war and declined to assist or recognize the Confederacy.
The Confederacy’s frontier, extending from Norfolk, Virginia, through southwestern Virginia and Kentucky to western Missouri, was breached at Forts Donelson and Henry, Tennessee, in February 1862, and again at Pittsburg Landing in western Tennessee in April. In May 1863, New Orleans fell to Federal forces, and with the fall of Murfreesborough, Tennessee, and Vicksburg, Mississippi, in 1863, the western part of the Confederacy was severed from the main group of states.
From the autumn of 1862, the coastline from Chesapeake Bay to Galveston was patrolled by an increasingly stringent blockade of armed warships. This blockade effectively closed Southern ports to foreign trade. The only significant Confederate incursions into the North occurred along the northern border of Virginia, which ceased after General Lee’s defeat at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, in July 1863. This was followed by General William T. Sherman’s march to the sea in the autumn of 1864, which cut through the heart of the Confederacy.
These adverse conditions led to petty jealousies among army officers, mirroring those between civil authorities of the Confederate and state governments. Joseph E. Johnston, connected to prominent Southern families, developed intense hostility toward President Davis and envied General Lee’s growing reputation. The Confederate Congress generally sided with Johnston against the President but feared openly antagonizing Lee.
Initially, the South possessed an advantage in the quality of its senior officers, who resigned their U.S. Army commissions to accept commands in the Confederate army. Leaders such as Robert E. Lee, Joseph E. Johnston, Albert Sidney Johnston, and Pierre G. T. Beauregard possessed considerable ability and extensive experience in warfare. The prestige of these names and the confidence they inspired contributed significantly to the rapid formation and successful organization of the Confederate armies. During the first year of the war, the Confederacy mobilized over 400,000 men and began constructing warships in English and French docks. Over the four years of the war, almost 900,000 soldiers were enlisted and equipped. Regardless of initial views on secession, participation in the fighting was considered a point of honor.
Early battlefield successes fostered the belief that victory was imminent. The Confederate Government contracted a debt of $1,500,000,000, and the states, counties, and municipalities likely spent nearly as much. Ultimately, the U.S. government repudiated almost all of this debt during Reconstruction in 1865-66. A small portion of this debt, approximately $10,000,000, was owed to European creditors, but the remainder was a total loss to the Southern population, particularly slave owners. Cotton production and export declined from four million to less than one million bales between 1860 and 1865, and profitability did not return to pre-war levels until 1870. The corporate wealth of railroads and manufacturers was almost entirely lost during the war. While the South had three main railroad lines at the war’s outset, these deteriorated due to a lack of access to steel and iron mills in the North and England, eventually becoming almost worthless.
Throughout the war, internal troubles persisted within the Confederate Government. From November 1864 to February 1865, a strong faction in the Confederate Congress, led by Alexander H. Stephens and supported by Governors Zebulon B. Vance of North Carolina and Joseph E. Brown of Georgia, advocated for the impeachment of Jefferson Davis and the establishment of a military dictatorship headed by General Robert E. Lee. However, Lee’s refusal to endorse the plan prevented its implementation.
The Confederate States of America effectively collapsed after Ulysses S. Grant captured its capital, Richmond, Virginia, and Robert E. Lee’s army surrendered in April 1865. The remaining Confederate forces surrendered by the end of June as the U.S. Army took control of the South.
Following the war, Reconstruction began, a decade-long process that expelled ex-Confederate leaders from office, enacted civil rights legislation, and imposed conditions on the states’ readmission to Congress. The war and subsequent Reconstruction left the South economically devastated, and it would take years for the region to recover.