Little Big Horn Military Campaign
The Little Big Horn Military Campaign, a series of conflicts unfolding between 1876 and 1877, stands as a pivotal and tragic chapter in the history of the American West. At its heart lay a complex web of grievances, rooted in broken treaties, the relentless pursuit of resources, and the clash of vastly different cultures. The Sioux Nation, along with their Cheyenne allies, felt betrayed by the U.S. government, accusing it of violating the Fort Laramie Treaty. This treaty, intended to establish peace and delineate territories, was perceived by the Sioux as having been disregarded through the encroachment of white settlers and the inadequate provision of promised goods and services to tribal agencies. Conversely, white settlers and government officials accused the Sioux of violating the treaty by raiding settlements and disrupting travel routes bordering their designated lands.
These tensions were not new. The seeds of conflict had been sown years earlier, during Red Cloud’s War (1866-1868). This earlier conflict erupted when the U.S. government attempted to construct roads through Sioux territory, particularly to facilitate access to the Montana goldfields. The Sioux, fiercely protective of their land and way of life, resisted these incursions.
The discovery of gold in the Black Hills in 1874 proved to be the catalyst for renewed and intensified conflict. The lure of riches brought a tidal wave of miners and prospectors into the region, and the expansion of railroads further threatened the traditional lands and hunting grounds of the Native Americans. This influx fueled unrest among the Sioux, Cheyenne, and other tribes, prompting many to leave their reservations in defiance of government mandates.
The U.S. Army initially attempted to stem the tide of gold seekers, while the government sought to purchase the Black Hills from the Sioux. However, both approaches proved unsuccessful. The Sioux refused to relinquish their sacred lands, and the allure of gold proved too strong for the miners to resist.
As tensions escalated, the Interior Department issued an ultimatum: all Native Americans were to return to their designated reservations by the end of January 1876. Those who refused were branded as "hostiles," and the Army was authorized to take action to enforce compliance. This decision marked a turning point, setting the stage for a full-scale military campaign.
The initial military response was a small expedition into the Powder River country in March 1876. However, this operation yielded little in the way of tangible results. Recognizing the need for a more substantial effort, the War Department devised a comprehensive plan involving the convergence of multiple military columns on the Yellowstone River. The objective was to trap the "hostile" Native Americans and force their return to the reservations.
Lieutenant General Philip Sheridan, commander of the Division of the Missouri, oversaw the implementation of this ambitious plan. He ordered Major General George Crook, commander of the Department of the Platte, to move north from Fort Fetterman, Wyoming, with a force of approximately 1,000 men. Simultaneously, Brigadier General Alfred Terry, commander of the Department of Dakota, led two columns south up the Yellowstone River. Terry’s direct command included a column of over 1,000 men marching from Fort Abraham Lincoln, North Dakota, to the mouth of the Powder River. The second column under Terry’s command, consisting of roughly 450 men under Colonel John Gibbon, advanced from Fort Ellis, Montana, towards the mouth of the Big Horn River. This coordinated movement was designed to encircle the Native American forces and compel their surrender.
On June 17, 1876, General Crook’s troops encountered a large band of Sioux and Cheyenne warriors under the leadership of prominent chiefs such as Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull on the Rosebud River. The engagement proved inconclusive, with both sides sustaining casualties. Crook, unable to secure a decisive victory, withdrew to the Tongue River to await reinforcements. Meanwhile, General Terry’s forces discovered the trail of the same Indian band. Terry dispatched Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer and the 7th Cavalry up the Rosebud River with orders to locate the war party and position themselves south of it. Terry, with the remainder of his command, continued up the Yellowstone River to rendezvous with Gibbon and close in on the Native Americans from the north. The events leading up to the Little Big Horn Military Campaign were in motion.
The stage was set for the infamous Battle of the Little Bighorn. On June 25, 1876, the 7th Cavalry, advancing up the Rosebud River, discovered a vast encampment of Native Americans, estimated to consist of 4,000 to 5,000 individuals, including an estimated 2,500 warriors, along the Little Big Horn River. Custer, believing he could achieve a swift victory, immediately ordered an attack, dividing his forces to strike the camp from multiple directions.
The Native Americans, initially caught by surprise, quickly rallied their forces and launched a fierce counterattack. Major Marcus A. Reno’s detachment was overwhelmed and suffered heavy losses, forcing them to retreat and take up a defensive position. Reno was later joined by Captain Frederick W. Benteen’s detachment and the pack train. This combined force managed to withstand repeated attacks, which eventually subsided late the following day. Custer, however, met a different fate. He and a force of 211 men were completely surrounded and annihilated. Terry and Gibbon did not arrive at the scene of Custer’s Last Stand until the morning of June 27. The 7th Cavalry’s total losses in the action, including Custer’s detachment, amounted to 12 officers, 247 enlisted men, five civilians, and three Indian scouts killed, as well as 2 officers and 51 enlisted men wounded. The Battle of the Little Bighorn became a symbol of Native American resistance, but it also ignited a firestorm of public outrage and a renewed commitment to subdue the "hostile" tribes.
Following the devastating defeat at Little Bighorn, the Little Big Horn Military Campaign continued until September 1877, with numerous additional Regular Army units seeing action. Generals Crook and Terry joined forces on the Rosebud River on August 10, 1876. While many Native Americans evaded the troops, a significant number eventually returned to their agencies.
The fighting during the fall and winter of 1876-77 primarily consisted of skirmishes and raids. Notable events included Crook’s capture of American Horse’s village at Slim Buttes, South Dakota, on September 9; the capture of Dull Knife’s village in the Big Horn Mountains on November 26; and Colonel Nelson Miles’ attack on Crazy Horse’s camp in the Wolf Mountains on January 8. These engagements, though smaller in scale than the Battle of the Little Bighorn, contributed to the gradual erosion of Native American resistance.
By the summer of 1877, the majority of the Sioux had returned to their reservations, signaling the waning of the Little Big Horn Military Campaign. Crazy Horse, who had initially resisted, eventually surrendered and was tragically killed while resisting arrest at Fort Robinson, Nebraska, in September. Sitting Bull, along with a small band of Sioux, sought refuge in Canada, but eventually surrendered at Fort Buford, Montana, in July 1881. The Little Big Horn Military Campaign had profound consequences for the Native American tribes of the Great Plains.
The Little Big Horn Military Campaign, while a military victory for the Native Americans in the short term, ultimately marked a turning point in the Indian Wars. The public outcry following Custer’s defeat fueled a renewed determination on the part of the U.S. government to subdue the remaining "hostile" tribes. The campaign led to increased military presence in the region, the forced relocation of many Native Americans to reservations, and the erosion of their traditional way of life. The events of 1876-1877 continue to be studied and debated, offering valuable insights into the complexities of the American West and the enduring legacy of the conflict between the United States government and the Native American tribes.