Dakota War of 1862

The Dakota War of 1862, also known as the Sioux Uprising or the Dakota Uprising, stands as a stark reminder of the fraught relationship between the United States government and the Dakota people. This conflict, erupting on August 17, 1862, along the Minnesota River in southwestern Minnesota, and culminating in the mass execution of 38 Dakota men on December 26, 1862, in Mankato, Minnesota, represents a tragic chapter in American history. The Dakota War of 1862 was more than just a series of battles; it was the culmination of decades of broken treaties, unfulfilled promises, and escalating tensions that ultimately exploded into violence.

The roots of the Dakota War of 1862 are deeply embedded in the history of westward expansion and the U.S. government’s policies towards Native American tribes. Between 1805 and 1858, a series of treaties between the U.S. and the Dakota Nation drastically reduced the Dakota’s land holdings. These treaties not only diminished their territory but also fundamentally altered their way of life, transitioning them from a nomadic existence to one increasingly reliant on agriculture and government provisions. These changes had severe implications for the relationship between the Dakota and the U.S. government.

The agreements, intended to foster peace and coexistence, instead became a source of constant friction. The U.S. government frequently violated the terms of the treaties, failing to deliver promised goods and annuity payments in a timely or fair manner. This negligence caused immense hunger and hardship among the Dakota people, particularly those who had abandoned their traditional hunting and gathering practices in favor of farming. When annuity money did arrive, it was often immediately seized by traders claiming debts owed by the Dakota, further fueling resentment. Many Dakota individuals believed these debts were inflated or entirely fabricated, and they vehemently opposed the U.S. government’s practice of directly paying the traders.

By the summer of 1862, the situation had reached a critical point. The U.S. government’s preoccupation with financing the Civil War led to further delays in annuity payments, exacerbating existing problems of crop failures and poor hunting yields. Traders and Indian agents, facing their own economic pressures, were unwilling to extend credit to the Dakota, leaving many people facing starvation and desperation. This desperation was particularly acute among those Dakota who had not fully embraced farming and were thus more reliant on government assistance. These factors, combined with a growing sense of injustice and cultural alienation, created a volatile atmosphere within Minnesota’s Dakota community, pushing it toward a breaking point that would trigger the Dakota War of 1862.

The spark that ignited the conflict occurred on August 17, 1862, when four young Dakota warriors killed five settlers at the farms of Robinson Jones and Howard Baker in Acton, Minnesota. The motives behind this act are complex, likely stemming from a combination of frustration, anger, and a desire to assert their dwindling power. Following the killings, the warriors sought out Chief Little Crow (Taoyateduta), an influential Dakota leader, at Redwood. They hoped to persuade him to lead a military campaign against the European Americans, aimed at reclaiming their ancestral lands. Little Crow, a respected figure known for his strategic thinking and diplomatic skills, initially resisted the idea.

Upon hearing the warriors’ pleas, Little Crow, in a display of mourning and perhaps a premonition of the devastation to come, blackened his face and covered his head. He cautioned the young warriors, warning them of the futility of their endeavor and the overwhelming power of the United States. He famously stated, "Braves, you are little children – you are fools. You will die like the rabbits when the hungry wolves hunt them in January." However, when one of the warriors accused him of cowardice, Little Crow, bound by duty and a sense of responsibility to his people, reluctantly agreed to lead them, declaring, "Taoyateduta is not a coward: he will die with you." His decision, though born of a complex mix of pragmatism and honor, marked a turning point in the escalating crisis.

The following day, August 18, a group of Dakota warriors launched an attack on the Lower Sioux Agency, a government outpost and trading center. The attack resulted in the deaths of numerous civilians and marked the beginning of widespread violence throughout the Minnesota River Valley. Warriors targeted trading posts and settlements, seeking to disrupt the flow of resources and drive out the encroaching settlers. These initial forays resulted in the deaths of 44 Americans and the capture of ten others. The Dakota War of 1862 had officially begun, plunging the region into chaos and fear.

The response from the territorial government was swift. On August 19, Territorial Governor Alexander Ramsey appointed Henry H. Sibley as "commander of the Indian expedition" with the rank of colonel in the state militia. Sibley was a prominent figure in Minnesota, deeply invested in the region’s development. However, his appointment presented a complex situation, as he had a long history of trading with the Dakota people. He spoke their language, had been adopted into a Dakota band, had a Dakota child, and knew Chief Little Crow personally, even having hunted with him in the past. This familiarity with the Dakota people would make his task both easier and more difficult, as he balanced his loyalty to Minnesota with his understanding of the Dakota’s grievances.

On August 20, 1862, Colonel Sibley and the 6th Minnesota Infantry, a hastily assembled regiment of local volunteers and army troops, began their march from Fort Snelling towards St. Peter. After waiting for supplies and reinforcements, Sibley and his forces, numbering approximately 1,400 soldiers, advanced towards Fort Ridgely, arriving on August 28. Upon reinforcing Fort Ridgely, Sibley focused on training his troops, preparing them for the battles that lay ahead.

Meanwhile, the Dakota warriors continued their attacks throughout the Minnesota River Valley. On August 20, a relatively small group of Dakota warriors launched the first battle of New Ulm. The settlement was attacked. This initial skirmish lasted for several hours, resulting in the deaths of six settlers and injuries to five others. The attacks throughout the area caused New Ulm to be flooded with more than 1,000 refugees over the next several days, increasing its population to some 2,000 people, though only 300 were equipped to fight.

Also on August 20, a force of approximately 400 Dakota warriors, led by Chief Little Crow, attacked Fort Ridgely, the only military post standing between the Sioux Reservations and the settlements. The attack lasted for about five hours before the warriors retreated, but the attacks continued into the next day, when the Dakota nearly doubled their number. The soldiers were able to defend the fort successfully despite being severely outnumbered. In the battles, three soldiers and four civilians were killed, and 13 soldiers and 26 civilians were wounded. The Dakota carried away their dead, so only two Dakota deaths were confirmed.

On August 23, New Ulm, the largest settlement near the Sioux reservation, was attacked again by some 600 warriors led by Chiefs Wanbdiá¹­anka, Wabasa, and Makato. The Dakota warriors attacked the city after burning many of the homes in the surrounding area. The settlement’s defenders formed a defensive picket line several blocks west of town before the Sioux warriors advanced. The Indians held their fire until one of the defenders fired a shot, and seeing the Dakota’s superior numbers, the citizens retreated to barricades in town. Though the battle destroyed the town, leaving only 49 of the 190 structures, leaving 34 dead and 60 wounded, the citizens had successfully defended off their attackers.

On August 25, out of ammunition, food, and medicine, 2000 people, including 153 wagons and many refugees, evacuated the city and headed to Mankato, St. Peter, and St. Paul. Fortunately, they arrived unopposed and safe from their perilous journey.

In early September, Sibley tried to negotiate a settlement with Little Crow (Taoyateduta), but he would not agree to stop the fighting; he did explain the reasons for the war and that he was willing to release prisoners. Though Sibley demanded surrender, Little Crow refused. However, two other leaders, Chiefs Wabasha and Taopi, opposed the war and were willing to discuss surrender, as the war was fracturing the tribe. Fought by a relatively small group of Dakota warriors, there never was universal support from the community at large.

On September 2, the Minnesota militia counterattacked in the Battle of Birch Coulee, located about 16 miles from Fort Ridgely. Colonel Sibley, stationed at Fort Ridgely, had sent out a detachment of 150 soldiers to find survivors, locate and bury the remains of civilians, and report on the location of Dakota warriors. In the process, the burial party was attacked by Dakota warriors at Birch Coulee in the early morning, resulting in a three-hour firefight in which 13 soldiers were killed and 47 were wounded. When reports of the attack arrived at Fort Ridgely, Colonel Sibley immediately led a column of 240 soldiers to relieve the detachment at Birch Coulee the same afternoon. After the Dakota withdrew, Sibley and his troops returned to Fort Ridgely to continue their training.

Due to the demands of the Civil War, the region’s representatives had to repeatedly appeal for aid before President Abraham Lincoln formed the Department of the Northwest on September 6, 1862, and appointed General John Pope to command it with orders to quell the violence. Pope dispatched troops dispatched to the front as soon as companies were formed.

Dakota attacks were also taking place farther north as warriors laid siege to several unfortified stagecoach stops and river crossings along the Red River Trails, a settled trade route between Fort Garry (now Winnipeg, Manitoba) and Saint Paul, Minnesota, in the Red River Valley in northwestern Minnesota and eastern Dakota Territory. Many settlers and employees of the Hudson’s Bay Company and other local enterprises in this sparsely populated country took refuge in Fort Abercrombie, located about 25 miles south of present-day Fargo, North Dakota. Though the Dakota launched several attacks on Fort Abercrombie between late August and late September, all were repelled by its defenders.

Under considerable political pressure to defeat the Dakota quickly, Sibley and his reinforced troops moved up the Minnesota River, arriving at Lone Tree Lake (mistakenly identified as Wood Lake), where they camped on the night of September 22. The next morning, several soldiers left camp to forage for food and stumbled upon a group of Dakota warriors who had been preparing to attack Sibley’s forces. This resulted in the Battle of Wood Lake on September 23, 1862. After brief fighting, the forces in the skirmish line charged against the Dakota and defeated them overwhelmingly. It was the last major battle of the Dakota War of 1862.

The war lasted nearly six weeks, during which more than 600 civilians and U.S. soldiers and an estimated 75-100 Dakota lost their lives.

After the Battle of Wood Lake, many of the Dakota who participated in the war fled Minnesota. Of the approximately 2,000 who remained, of which 1,600 were non-combatants, they surrendered to Sibley’s military force on September 26 at Camp Release, near present-day Montevideo, Minnesota. With them were more than 250 European-American and "mixed-blood" prisoners whom the Dakota warriors had captured during the war.

After their surrender, Colonel Sibley established a Military Commission, and 498 trials were held in November 1862. Some trials lasted less than 5 minutes. No one explained the proceedings to the defendants, nor were the Sioux represented by defense attorneys. By the end of the process, 307 men were sentenced to death, but Sibley reduced the initial number to 303 after reviewing the testimonies.

The execution orders needed to be approved by the President of the United States before they could be carried out, and the number of condemned men was further reduced to 38 by President Abraham Lincoln, who sought to distinguish between Dakota warriors who had participated in battles with U.S. soldiers and those accused of killing and assaulting civilians. The remaining 38 men were hanged in Mankato, Minnesota, on December 26, 1862, in the largest mass execution in U.S. history. The mass execution was performed publicly on a single scaffold platform. After regimental surgeons pronounced the prisoners dead, they were buried en masse in a trench in the sand of the riverbank.

Chief Little Crow had fled to Canada, where he stayed for a time before returning to Minnesota. He was killed on July 3, 1863, near Hutchinson, Minnesota, by white settler Nathan Lamson, who shot him to collect the bounty. Once it was discovered that the body was that of Little Crow, his skull and scalp were displayed in St. Paul, Minnesota. The state granted Lamson an additional $500 bounty for killing Little Crow.

The U.S. military captured and imprisoned many Dakota, including Sakpedan (Little Six) and Wakanozhanzhan (Medicine Bottle). The two men fled to Canada after the war but were captured and delivered to U.S. authorities by British agents in January 1864. Both men were subsequently imprisoned at Fort Snelling, charged and convicted for their participation in the war, and sentenced to death. Their execution took place at Fort Snelling on November 11, 1865, in the presence of the fort’s garrison and numerous civilians.

The rest of the approximately 1,600 Dakota and "mixed-bloods," comprised mostly of women, children, and old men, surrendered at Camp Release and were removed to an internment camp on Pike Island near Fort Snelling. They spent the winter of 1862-63 when living conditions and sanitation were poor, and infectious disease struck the camp, killing more than 300 people. According to reports in local newspapers and Dakota oral histories, some of the prisoners endured assaults and violence at the hands of soldiers and local civilians.

In April 1863, the U.S. Congress abolished the Dakota reservation, declared all previous treaties with the tribe null and void, and undertook proceedings to expel the Dakota people entirely from Minnesota. In May 1863, Dakota survivors were forced aboard steamboats and relocated to the Crow Creek Reservation in the southeastern Dakota Territory, a place stricken by drought. Many of the survivors of Crow Creek moved three years later to the Niobrara Reservation in Nebraska. By the summer of 1863, most of Dakota had left Minnesota, heading into the western territories or north into Canada. As a result of the war, approximately 6,000 Dakota and "mixed-blood" people were displaced from their Minnesota homes.

To this end, a bounty of $25 per scalp was placed on any Dakota found free within the state’s boundaries. The only exception to this legislation applied to 208 people of the Mdewakanton band of Sioux, who remained neutral or assisted white settlers in the conflict.

The conflicts between the U.S. Government and the Sioux continued for many years after the end of the Dakota War of 1862.

Today, Dakota communities remain spread throughout Minnesota, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Canada.