Early Traders on the Santa Fe Trail
By Colonel Henry Inman, 1897
The allure of the Santa Fe Trail, a conduit of commerce and cultural exchange, began to take shape in the early 19th century. This arduous path across the Great Plains promised significant profits for those brave enough to navigate its challenges. Among the first to heed this call were men like Captain William Becknell, whose initial ventures laid the groundwork for the bustling trade route that would soon follow. This is the story of Early Traders on the Santa Fe Trail.
William Becknell: A Pioneer of Commerce
In 1812, Captain William Becknell, fresh from a successful trading expedition to the Comanche territories in the summer of 1811, turned his sights toward a new horizon: Santa Fe. Dissatisfied with the slow process of bartering with Native American tribes, Becknell envisioned a more direct and lucrative exchange with the New Mexicans. His first expedition proved remarkably successful. He returned to the Missouri River, his pockets lined with earnings and his spirit ignited by the potential of this newfound market.
Becknell’s enthusiastic accounts of immense profits attracted a eager audience. Inspired by his tales, investors readily pooled together $5,000 worth of merchandise, carefully selected to meet the demands of the Santa Fe market. With a company of thirty men, Becknell embarked on his second journey, this time with a significantly larger investment, a testament to the burgeoning confidence in the Santa Fe trade.
The caravan’s journey proceeded without major incident until they reached "The Caches" on the upper Arkansas River. It was here that Becknell, a man of the frontier known for his boldness and resourcefulness, made a fateful decision. He conceived the idea of forging a direct route to Santa Fe, cutting through an unexplored region. His rationale was to avoid the circuitous and rugged mountain path he had previously taken to Taos, New Mexico.
A Perilous Shortcut
Becknell’s decision to abandon the established route for the unknown proved to be a costly mistake. His men endured immense hardship, narrowly escaping death in the unforgiving terrain. The expedition, ill-prepared for the challenges ahead, soon found itself in dire straits. They lacked any knowledge of the region they were traversing. Assuming that water would be readily available from streams or springs, they neglected to carry sufficient supplies of this precious resource. After only two days, they realized, to their dismay, that they were trapped in the heart of a desolate desert, with the agonizing threat of thirst looming over them.
Guided only by the North Star and the unreliable needle of a pocket compass, they navigated an erratic course through the barren landscape. Water became an increasingly scarce commodity. When their canteens were emptied, the horrors of thirst began to take their toll. Men and animals alike teetered on the brink of madness. In a desperate attempt to quench their thirst, they resorted to killing the train’s dogs and drinking their blood. This hot and sickening liquid was gulped down with fervor. The mule’s ears were cut off to drink the blood, but the substitute for water only added to their sufferings.
Salvation arrived in the unexpected form of a buffalo bull that had just journeyed from the Cimarron River, where it had quenched its own thirst. The animal was swiftly killed, and the contents of its stomach eagerly consumed. One of the men who partook of this foul liquid later declared that nothing had ever tasted so exquisite as that first draft.
Despite their proximity to the Cimarron River, which held a plentiful supply of water, they decided to return to the Arkansas River. Before they began their retreat, a select group of the strongest men followed the trail of the buffalo. Upon reaching the river, they filled their canteens with fresh water. When they returned to their comrades, they were able to continue their slow march back to the Arkansas River.
Following the Arkansas River, they eventually reached Taos. This concluded their journey, which was prolonged by Becknell’s foolish attempt to take a shortcut. This is the story of the Early Traders on the Santa Fe Trail.
Early Fur Traders and the Caravan System
As early as 1815, Auguste P. Chouteau and his partner ventured into the Upper Crossing valley with a large contingent of trappers and hunters. They sought to trade with Native Americans and trap along the region’s numerous streams.
Chouteau established his trading post on an island in the Arkansas River, marking the boundary between the United States and Mexico. The island, which still bears his name, was a picturesque haven of lush grass and groves, bordered by a heavily timbered bottom on the American side.
While occupying the island, Chouteau and his company were attacked by approximately 300 Pawnee Indians. However, the seasoned trappers and hunters successfully repelled the assault, inflicting heavy casualties on the attackers. The Pawnee later declared this encounter as the most devastating they had ever experienced, marking their first encounter with American firearms.
The early trade with New Mexico operated primarily on the caravan system. It relied heavily on the remote ports of old Mexico, where goods were transported on the backs of burros and mules. This slow and tedious process catered to the primitive tastes of the region’s inhabitants. As a result, the westward traffic across the Great Plains remained limited. In 1824, when legitimate and substantial commerce with New Mexico began, wheeled vehicles were introduced, revolutionizing the trade and enabling it to reach unprecedented levels of importance. This growth continued with the advent of railroads, surpassing the wildest dreams of the trade’s early pioneers.
Adventures and Misfortunes
Eight years after Pursley’s journey, the potential of the New Mexico trade began to attract speculators and adventurers. Robert McKnight, James Baird, and Samuel Chambers, along with a dozen companions, set out across the plains with a supply of goods. They successfully reached Santa Fe, but their troubles began once under Mexican jurisdiction. The entire party was arrested as spies, their goods were confiscated, and they were imprisoned in Chihuahua. Most of them remained incarcerated for almost a decade. Baird and Chambers managed to escape and returned to St. Louis in 1822. Despite their harrowing experience, they spoke of the prospects of trade with the Mexicans in such glowing terms that they convinced some individuals to finance another expedition. They then set out again for Santa Fe.
The expedition started too late in the season. They reached the crossing of the Arkansas River without incident. However, a violent snowstorm forced them to halt, making it impossible to continue. They were stranded on an island near present-day Cimarron, Kansas, for over three months. During this time, most of their animals perished from the cold and lack of food. When the weather improved, they were left without transportation for their goods. They were forced to hide them in pits dug in the earth, a method known as caching, which was common among the old French voyageurs.
After caching their goods, Baird and his men traveled to Taos, where they purchased mules. They then returned to their caches and transported their goods to market. The term "cache" has remained in use among the "old-timers" of the mountains and plains, becoming a provincialism among their descendants.
Growing Commerce and Government Involvement
The immense profits generated from merchandise transported across the perilous Trail to Santa Fe soon attracted the attention of merchants east of the Missouri River. Common cotton cloth sold for two to three dollars a yard in Santa Fe, and other goods were sold at similar markups. The prospect of such profits transformed the distant market into a veritable Golconda for those willing to risk the journey.
In 1824, the United States government recognized the growing importance and potential of trade with New Mexico. Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri spearheaded this movement, advocating for the development of the West. He introduced a bill authorizing the President to appoint a commission to survey a road from the Missouri River to the New Mexico boundary and beyond, with the consent of the Mexican government. President James Monroe signed the bill into law, and his successor, John Quincy Adams, implemented it. However, a mistake was made in assuming that the Osage Indians were the sole inhabitants of the proposed route. Despite this setback, travelers continued to use the established wagon trail. Since negotiations were not entered with the Comanche, Cheyenne, Pawnee, or Kiowa, these warlike tribes continued to harass caravans in the Arkansas River valley.
The American fur trade was at its peak when the Santa Fe trade began to gain prominence. The two enterprises differed significantly. The fur trade was controlled by wealthy companies, while the Santa Fe trade was initially conducted by individuals with limited capital. These individuals purchased goods in the Eastern markets and transported them to the Missouri River, where they were packed on mules. However, in 1824, the trade transformed into a vast operation, with wagons replacing mules as the primary mode of transportation.
Later, oxen were used instead of mules. Oxen had the ability to pull heavier loads than mules, which was useful on sandy and muddy terrain.
For a long time, traders bought mules in Santa Fe and drove them to the Missouri River. However, as the number of mules raised in the Southern States increased, the importation from New Mexico stopped. The American mule was better than the New Mexican mule.
Mules were once a crucial part of the trade. Those who dealt in them and drove them across the Trail faced numerous challenges. Indians would often steal entire herds of three to five hundred mules.
The Indians quickly learned how to stampede a caravan of mules. Once panicked, the mules became uncontrollable, and the Indians drove them miles away from the Trail, using bloodcurdling yells to keep them in a frenzy. This is the story of Early Traders on the Santa Fe Trail.
Indian Raids and Government Protection
A story tells of a small group of twelve men, who were camped on the Cimarron River in 1826. They possessed only four guns. They were approached by a party of Indians, who were believed to be Arapaho. The Indians initially feigned friendship. They observed the traders’ defenseless state and left. They returned shortly thereafter with thirty men, all on foot and carrying lassos. The chief informed the Americans that his men were tired of walking and needed horses.
The terrified traders, realizing that resistance was futile, told the Indians that if one animal per person would satisfy them, they could take them. The Indians quickly complied. However, after realizing how easily their request was met, they demanded two animals each. The traders again acquiesced. The Indians mounted the animals they had already secured, swung their lassos, and drove off the entire herd of nearly 500 horses, mules, and asses.
In 1829, the plains Indians became such a threat to the caravans traveling to Santa Fe that the United States government responded to the traders’ pleas. They ordered three companies of infantry and one of riflemen, under the command of Major Bennet Riley, to escort the annual caravan. The caravan departed from Franklin, Missouri, which was then the eastern terminus of the Santa Fe trade. They traveled to Chouteau’s Island on the Arkansas River, marking the boundary between the United States and Mexico. After they left the island and the troops, the Kiowa attacked the caravan. The Kiowa were one of the most bloodthirsty tribes on the plains.
In 1843, Captain Philip St. George Cooke escorted two large caravans to the same point on the Arkansas River. Major Riley provided an escort, and Captain Wharton provided an escort of sixty dragoons, five years later.
As the trade expanded, the Comanche, Pawnee, and Arapaho continued their raids. Many traders believed that the Mexicans encouraged the Indians to commit these acts. The Mexicans were always suspicious of "Los Americanos."
Caravans and troop detachments frequently fell victim to the attacks of these bandits of the Trail. The number of people killed and scalped, as well as those captured, tortured, and mutilated, was appalling. This occurred from the beginning of trade with New Mexico until 1868-69, when General Sheridan launched his "winter campaign." The campaign broke the power of the plains tribes. The number of horses, mules, and oxen stolen during this period was immense.
Explorers and Adventurers
Captain Zebulon Pike was sent on an exploring expedition up the Arkansas River in 1806. He went around the head of the Canadian River and crossed the mountains. He arrived at the Rio del Norte with his party of fifteen men.
Pike built a small fort for his company. He was soon discovered, as he was within Mexican territory. A force was sent to take him to Santa Fe. The Spanish officer assured him that the governor was sending animals and an escort to bring his men and baggage to a navigable point on the Red River. The governor also wanted to see him in Santa Fe.
The governor sent Pike and his men to the commandant general at Chihuahua, where his papers were seized. Pike and his party were escorted to the United States through San Antonio de Bexar.
Many people believed that Pike’s expedition was related to Aaron Burr’s treasonous plot. This idea is wrong. Pike’s conduct showed him to be a patriot, and he would never have supported Burr.
After Captain Pike’s report was published, adventurers were inspired by his descriptions of the country. These adventurers would experience trials and disappointments.
Captain William Sublette and Captain Jedediah Smith were veterans of the Rocky Mountains. They were inexperienced in the complexities of the Trail. They started with twenty wagons, and none of the party were able to guide the caravan on the dangerous route.
The Trail was easy to follow from the Missouri River. When they arrived at the Cimarron River crossing of the Arkansas River, there was no trace of former caravans. There were only buffalo trails leading from every direction to the river.
The men soon discovered that the region was barren and dry. Water was a necessity for survival. Smith decided to follow one of the buffalo trails, hoping it would lead to water. He left the train alone, embodying courage and fearlessness.
After walking for miles, Smith saw a stream in the valley. It was the Cimarron River. He hurried towards it, but it was dry.
Smith knew that many streams in the West run underground. He dug in the sand and soon found water. As he bent down to drink, he was ambushed by Comanches. A dozen arrows struck his body. Before he died, he killed two of the Indians.
Sublette and Smith’s comrades learned about his fate from Mexican traders, who heard the story from the Indians who had killed him. The Early Traders on the Santa Fe Trail had many losses.
Josiah Gregg, the author of Trail in Commerce of the Prairies, described the challenges of the journey.
He wrote about the dangers faced by hunters, who often strayed far from the caravan alone or in small groups. The Indians could easily ambush them.
Gregg wrote that Sublette narrowly escaped destruction after encountering a large group of Blackfeet and Gros Ventres. Sublette’s experience helped him to navigate the situation without serious harm.
The Santa Fe Trade Takes Shape
The Santa Fe trade effectively began in 1822. One of the most important events was the first attempt to use wagons in the expeditions. In 1824, a company of eighty traders from Missouri made this attempt. They brought twenty-five wheeled vehicles, including road wagons, carts, and carriages, carrying merchandise worth twenty-five to thirty thousand dollars.
Colonel Marmaduke was a member of the party. The caravan reached Santa Fe safely, experiencing fewer difficulties than expected.
Gregg continued to write about the early traders, who often traveled in small groups and carried limited amounts of goods. He noted that the traders were not always innocent in inciting the Indian hostilities that followed. Some traders killed Indians even when they were innocent.
Gregg cited an example from 1826, when two young men named McNess and Monroe were killed on the bank of a creek. When their comrades found them, McNess was dead, and Monroe was dying. Monroe was carried to the Cimarron River, where he died.
As the funeral was about to conclude, six or seven Indians appeared on the opposite side of the Cimarron River. Some of the party wanted to invite them to talk, while others wanted to fire on them. The Indians were likely unaware of the killings.
Seeing the hostile attitude of the company, the Indians tried to escape. One was shot down and killed, and the others were also killed or mortally wounded, except for one who escaped.
These cruel acts had a negative impact on the trade. The Indians became more hostile and waged war against the "pale-faces." The party suffered severely afterward. They were pursued by the Indians and robbed of nearly a thousand horses and mules.
The author acknowledged that most wars with Native American tribes were caused by broken faith on the part of the United States. He cited the Nez Perce War and the war with the allied plains tribes as examples. In both cases, treaties were broken, leading to conflict.
In 1867, Congress made a treaty with the Cheyenne, Kiowa, and Arapaho at Medicine Lodge. However, Congress failed to provide funding to carry out the treaty’s provisions. The Indians then attacked settlements, causing destruction and loss of life. General Sheridan then forced the Indians to make peace.
Compiled and edited by Kathy Alexander/Legends of America, updated March 2025.
Also See:
- Pathways To the West
- Santa Fe Trail – Highway to the Southwest
- Santa Fe Trail Photo Gallery
- Tales of the Santa Fe Trail
About the Article & Author: Excerpted from the book, The Old Santa Fe Trail, by Colonel Henry Inman, 1897. Please note that the article as it appears here is not verbatim, as minor editing has occurred. Henry Inman was well known both as an officer in the U.S. Army and an author dealing with subjects of the Western plains. During the Civil War, Inman was a Lieutenant Colonel, and afterward, he won distinction as a magazine writer. He wrote several books, including Old Santa Fe Trail, Great Salt Lake Trail, The Ranch on the Ox-hide, and other similar books dealing with the subjects he knew so well. Colonel Inman left several unfinished manuscripts at his death in Topeka, Kansas, on November 13, 1899.