Early Transportation on the Great Plains
The vast expanse of the Great Plains, a seemingly endless sea of grass stretching across the heart of North America, presented formidable challenges to early travelers. Before the advent of railroads and paved highways, traversing this landscape required ingenuity, resilience, and a deep understanding of the environment. The story of early transportation on the Great Plains is a testament to human adaptability, a chronicle of how different cultures and technologies shaped the movement of people and goods across this immense region.
Indian Methods of Transportation
Long before European explorers set foot on the continent, the indigenous peoples of the Great Plains had developed their own methods of navigating and utilizing the land. Initially, human carriage was the only option. The earliest form of transportation was undoubtedly on the backs of individuals, a physically demanding task that limited the amount and distance of goods that could be moved. This arduous method prevailed for countless generations.
However, the ingenuity of the Plains Indians led to the domestication and utilization of dogs as pack animals. This innovation marked a significant step forward. Historical accounts, such as those from Castaneda, the historian of Coronado’s Expedition in 1541, describe the sight of Native American tribes traveling "like Arabs with their tents," their belongings loaded onto "droves of dogs harnessed with saddle-cloths, pack-saddles, and a cinch." These dogs, described as medium-sized, were capable of carrying substantial loads, allowing entire communities to migrate and trade with greater efficiency. The dogs even signaled when their loads needed adjustment with plaintive howls. One hundred years later, another Spanish wanderer, Benavides, noted the incredible sight of "500 dogs in one pack train," each animal laden with merchandise for trade. This reliance on dogs as beasts of burden highlights the resourcefulness of the Plains Indians in adapting to their environment.
The arrival of the horse, descendants of Arabian steeds brought to the New World by the Spanish conquerors of Mexico, revolutionized transportation on the Great Plains. Wild horses roamed the plains as far back as 1750. The horse, quickly adopted and integrated into their way of life, transformed the ability to move goods and people across greater distances with speed and ease. The Plains tribes quickly adapted to using horses for transportation. However, their initial method was rather basic. They employed a device known as the "travois," a simple framework of two poles attached to the horse’s sides, with the ends dragging on the ground. This design, remarkably similar to the one used for dogs, allowed for the transport of larger and heavier loads than could be carried on a person’s back or by a single dog. The French referred to it as the "travois," and its use was universal, spanning from the Great Lakes to Texas.
Spanish Methods
The Spanish introduced new transportation methods to the Great Plains, primarily focused on the pack train. The pack train was essentially an importation from Europe. The muleteer, or mule driver, became a skilled tradesman and it became almost an art. Their skills were required to navigate isolated areas and terrains that would have otherwise remained untouched. In the early history of the Southwest, regular commercial routes stretched over 1,500 miles. One noteworthy example is Captain Bautista Anza’s expedition from Sonora, Mexico, to San Francisco, California, in 1774, which relied on a pack train for supplies. Similarly, Coronado’s explorations of the Plains were supported by a pack train that sustained his expedition for nearly two years.
The volume of trade conducted via pack trains was substantial. On the Vera Cruz Trail, an estimated 70,000 mules were used annually, transporting goods worth $64 million. These trains operated along established commercial routes connecting Mexico with Spanish settlements near the Rocky Mountains. For travelers unable to ride, litters were sometimes constructed, suspended between two mules walking in single file.
The carreta, a crude ox-cart built entirely of wood, made an appearance in the early 17th century. Carretas were not often used on the Plains outside of New Mexico. These heavy, two-wheeled vehicles were constructed from cottonwood logs and lacked any iron components. Their slow, creaking progress was a distinctive feature of the landscape. Juan de Onate utilized Zacatecas wagons, pulled by oxen, on his 1596 expedition to colonize New Mexico. Regular communication was maintained using these wagons for the next two centuries.
The Mexican Pack-Train
The American traders along the Santa Fe Trail adopted the Mexican pack train. The first overland commerce established by Americans was along the Santa Fe Trail, and until 1827, it was carried on entirely by pack trains. The Mexican pack train, or "atajo," was a well-organized system that relied on mules to transport goods across long distances.
Henry Inman provides a detailed description of the equipment used for a pack mule, including the "aparejo," a leather pad filled with hay, and the "zalea," a raw sheepskin used to prevent chafing. The load, or "carga," typically weighed around 300 pounds and was secured tightly to the mule’s back.
An "atajo" could consist of 50 to 200 mules, traveling 12 to 15 miles per day. The muleteers had to constantly monitor the packs, readjusting them as needed to prevent them from falling off. Despite the challenges, this system proved to be remarkably efficient and cost-effective. The early transportation on the Great Plains was so economical that it made wagon competition nearly impossible in level areas. Muleteers were paid only $5 a month. Every band of mules was led by a bell mare.
The Prairie Schooner
After 1824, wagons became increasingly common for transporting goods across the Great Plains. These wagons, often manufactured in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, were capable of carrying about a ton and a half of cargo. They were typically drawn by eight mules or oxen. Larger wagons, pulled by as many as twelve animals, were also used. These wagons became known as "prairie schooners," a fitting name for their resemblance to ships sailing across the vast grasslands.
The first caravan of wagons to cross the Plains in 1824 was accompanied by a long pack train of mules. Oxen were first used in 1829. The cost of outfitting a wagon train was substantial. Wagons cost $200 each, mules $100 each, harnesses $100 per wagon, water kegs, and extras $25 per wagon. At least ten mules were required for each wagon. The wagon master was paid $100 per month, each driver $25, while there were herders, cooks, and roustabouts to be considered. The Santa Fe trader had to invest heavily. In the last years of the trade, 200 wagons were on the trail.
The Mexican government often proved to be hostile to the traders. Westward-bound caravans would halt on the Cimarron River and send scouts forward to ascertain the feelings of the authorities. Under the governorship of Manuel Armijo, a duty of $500 per wagon was charged against the helpless trader. Traders would transfer the freight of three wagons to one within a few miles of Santa Fe, and the empty vehicles burned. To avoid paying the export duty charged on coins, false axle trees were attached to the wagons, which concealed the money.
Stampedes were a constant threat during these prairie journeys. The mule, a patient and good worker, was as easily frightened as a Texas steer. Prairie dogs, strange figures, and even the shadow of a passing cloud have been known to start every animal on the train into a wild run. They seemingly go mad, rushing into one another and becoming so entangled that drivers and mules were frequently crushed to death. They have dashed over precipices and been killed or strayed so far away as to be lost in the desert. Inman quotes an incident illustrating this during a winter military campaign in 1868. The mules of three wagons stampeded, dashed out of sight, and were never found. Ten years later, a farmer who had taken up a claim in what is now Rush County, Kansas, discovered in a ravine on his place the bones of some animals, decayed parts of the harness, and the remains of three army wagons. These were undoubtedly the lost stampeders.
The departure of a caravan was quite a spectacle. The order of the captain was "“Catch up! Catch up!â€" Josiah Gregg’s description is complete:
“The uproarious bustle which follows, the hallooing of those in pursuit of animals, the exclamations which the unruly brutes call forth from their wrathful drivers, together with the clatter of bells, the rattle of yokes and harness, the jingle of chains, all conspire to produce an uproarious confusion. It is sometimes amusing to observe the athletic wagoner hurrying an animal to its post — to see him heave upon the halter of a stubborn mule. At the same time, the brute obstinately sets back, determined not to move a peg till his good pleasure thinks it proper to do so. I have more than once seen a driver hitch a harnessed animal to the halter and, by that process, haul his mulishness forward while each of his four projected feet would leave a furrow behind. ‘All’s set!’ is finally heard from some teamster — ‘All’s set!’ is directly responded from every quarter. ‘Stretch out!’ immediately vociferates the captain. Then the ‘heps,’ to the drivers, the cracking of whips, the trampling of feet, the occasional creak of wheels, the rumbling of the wagons, while ‘Fall in!’ is heard from headquarters, and the train is strung out, and in a few moments has started on its long journey.â€"
In conclusion, early transportation on the Great Plains was a complex and evolving process, shaped by the ingenuity of Native Americans, the introduction of European technologies, and the challenges of a vast and unforgiving landscape. From the simple travois pulled by dogs to the massive wagon trains that traversed the Santa Fe Trail, each method of transportation played a vital role in the history and development of this iconic region. The story of early transportation on the Great Plains is a testament to the human spirit’s ability to adapt and overcome obstacles in the pursuit of exploration, trade, and settlement.