Fort Mose, Florida – A Free Black Town
In the annals of American history, the story of Fort Mose, Florida, stands as a testament to resilience, resistance, and the enduring human desire for freedom. This remarkable settlement, established in the 18th century, represents a unique chapter in the complex narrative of slavery and emancipation in North America. Sponsored by the Spanish colonial government, Fort Mose served as a sanctuary for escaped slaves from the British colonies, offering them a path to freedom in exchange for conversion to Catholicism and service to the Spanish Crown. It is the first legally sanctioned free Black town in what is now the United States.
The backdrop to the emergence of Fort Mose was the intense rivalry between Spain and Britain for control of the southeastern territories of North America. Florida, under Spanish rule, became a strategic pawn in this geopolitical game. Seeking to undermine British colonization efforts to the north, Spain adopted a policy of welcoming fugitive slaves from South Carolina. This policy not only weakened the British economy by depriving them of labor but also bolstered the Spanish colonial population, providing a crucial defense force against British incursions.
The promise of freedom in Florida acted as a beacon for enslaved Africans in South Carolina, who faced brutal conditions and limited opportunities for autonomy. The arduous journey to Spanish territory was fraught with peril, but the hope of a better life motivated many to undertake the risk. Upon reaching Florida, these fugitives were offered the chance to convert to Catholicism and pledge their allegiance to Spain. In return, they were granted their freedom and the opportunity to build a new life.
The 1730s witnessed the formation of a vibrant Black Spanish community in St. Augustine, the capital of Spanish Florida. This community, composed of former slaves and free Black colonists, laid the foundation for the establishment of Fort Mose. The town, officially named Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mosé, was strategically located just north of St. Augustine, serving as a buffer against potential British attacks. The "Gracia Real" portion of the name indicated that the settlement was sanctioned and supported by the Spanish King. Saint Teresa de Avila was named the town’s patron saint, while "Mose" was the pre-existing name of the area.
Two distinct Fort Mose sites existed during the 18th century. The first, occupied between 1737 and 1740, provided initial refuge and a foundation for the community. The second, established in 1752 and lasting until 1763, represented a more fortified and established settlement. Today, the Fort Mose Site, a designated National Historic Landmark, marks the location of this second, more permanent, Fort Mose.
To understand the significance of Fort Mose, it’s essential to consider the context of slavery within the Spanish colonial system. While slavery existed in Spain and its colonies, it was governed by a legal framework that offered certain rights and protections to the enslaved. These rights, rooted in Catholic doctrine, Roman law, and Spanish policy, included the right to own property, sue in court, maintain family ties, and even purchase their freedom. This contrasts sharply with the chattel slavery practiced in the British colonies, where enslaved Africans were considered property with virtually no legal recourse.
The presence of enslaved Africans in St. Augustine dates back to its founding in 1565 when they arrived as part of Pedro Menéndez de Avilés’s colonizing expedition. Despite instances of slave rebellions throughout the Spanish American colonies, by the 18th century, Spanish Florida boasted a growing population of both free and enslaved Black colonists, reflecting Spain’s more flexible approach to race and slavery.
Spain’s policy of offering refuge to escaped slaves stemmed from a pragmatic combination of strategic interests and humanitarian considerations. In 1693, King Charles II of Spain issued a decree ordering his Florida colonists to grant freedom and protection to runaway slaves from British colonies, provided they converted to Catholicism and agreed to serve Spain. This decree served as a powerful incentive for enslaved Africans to seek refuge in Florida, offering them a chance to escape the horrors of slavery and gain control over their lives.
The impact of this policy was significant. Between the late 17th and mid-18th centuries, a considerable number of slaves successfully escaped from South Carolina to Florida. Spanish records document at least six separate groups of escapees arriving in St. Augustine between 1688 and 1725. This influx of fugitive slaves not only provided Spain with a valuable labor force but also served as a constant source of irritation and disruption for the British colonies.
A key figure in the history of Fort Mose is Francisco Menéndez, a Black slave who escaped to St. Augustine from South Carolina in 1724. A veteran of the Yamasee War of 1715, Menéndez possessed exceptional military skills and leadership qualities. In 1726, Florida Governor Antonio de Benavides appointed him to lead a Black slave militia tasked with defending St. Augustine against British attacks.
Despite his service and loyalty, Menéndez initially faced obstacles in securing his freedom. Governor Benavides, interpreting King Charles II’s 1693 decree narrowly, initially refused to grant freedom to Menéndez and his fellow militiamen. However, after persistent petitioning and a change in leadership, Menéndez and his comrades were finally granted unconditional freedom by Governor Manuel de Montiano in 1737.
Following his emancipation, Menéndez played a pivotal role in the establishment of Fort Mose. Governor Montiano recognized his leadership abilities and appointed him as the head of the Fort Mose community. Despite the presence of a white Catholic priest and a Spanish officer, Menéndez held significant authority within the settlement, commanding the respect of both its residents and the Spanish authorities.
The strategic importance of Fort Mose became evident in 1740 when Georgia Governor James Oglethorpe launched an invasion of Florida. Oglethorpe’s forces, consisting of British colonists and American Indian allies, captured Fort Mose after the community evacuated to St. Augustine due to insufficient fortifications. However, the Fort Mose militia, under the command of Menéndez, launched a counterattack, successfully retaking their village in a conflict known as the Battle of Bloody Mose. This victory forced Oglethorpe to retreat and solidified the reputation of the Fort Mose militia as a formidable fighting force.
Despite their triumph, the Spanish abandoned the first Fort Mose after Oglethorpe’s attack, and the Black community integrated into mainstream Spanish colonial life in St. Augustine. In 1752, Governor Fulgencio García de Solís ordered the reconstruction of Fort Mose at a new site north of the city. This second Fort Mose, again led by Captain Menéndez, persisted until Spain ceded Florida to Britain in 1763.
Following the conclusion of the Seven Years’ War, Spain relinquished control of Florida, and the inhabitants of Fort Mose, along with other Spanish colonists, were forced to evacuate. They resettled in Matanzas, Cuba, where they faced harsh conditions and challenges in adapting to their new environment. Eventually, many, including Francisco Menéndez, relocated to Havana, Cuba.
While the Black Spanish community never returned to Fort Mose, archaeological excavations conducted at the site of the second fort since the 1970s have unearthed valuable insights into the settlement’s history and daily life. These excavations have revealed remnants of a moat, log stockade, earthwork fort walls, dwellings, and a parish church. Artifacts such as beads, nails, glass, buttons, ceramics, and food remains provide tangible evidence of the community’s existence and cultural heritage.
Today, the site of Fort Mose is preserved as Fort Mose Historic State Park, a testament to the courage and resilience of the Black men and women who sought freedom and built a community in Spanish Florida. The park features a visitor center with exhibits that showcase the history of Fort Mose, as well as a boardwalk that leads visitors to the site of the second fort. Reenactors and park rangers bring the story of Fort Mose to life, educating visitors about the lives and experiences of the freedmen and women who called this remarkable place home.