Indian Shamans & Priests
By Frederick Webb Hodge, 1906
Across the diverse tapestry of Native American cultures, spiritual leadership assumed various forms, each deeply interwoven with the beliefs, practices, and societal structures of the individual tribes. While the term "shaman," strictly speaking, may not have been used by all indigenous groups to describe their religious leaders, the roles of mediators between the physical and spiritual realms were undeniably present. These individuals, alongside priests, held positions of immense importance, guiding their communities through the complexities of life and the mysteries of the unseen. The distinctions between these roles, however, were often nuanced and varied from tribe to tribe. This article delves into the characteristics and functions of Indian Shamans & Priests, exploring their unique contributions to the spiritual landscape of Native America.
The line between Indian Shamans & Priests can be viewed as a spectrum, with shamans often relying on individual ability and direct interaction with the spirit world, while priests tended to operate within a more established, communal framework. Shamans derived their authority from personal experiences, visions, and acquired skills, acting as intermediaries between the human world and the realm of spirits. Their power stemmed from their ability to connect with supernatural forces and harness them for healing, divination, and influencing events. Priests, on the other hand, typically held positions within a structured religious system, serving the needs of the tribe or nation as a whole. Their roles often involved leading ceremonies, preserving sacred knowledge, and maintaining the established order of spiritual practices.
The term "shaman" itself is subject to debate. Its origin is often traced to the Tungus people of Siberia, where it denoted a "medicine-man" or exorcist. From this context, it was extended to describe similar figures among the Indian tribes of America. The roles fulfilled by Indian Shamans & Priests in various tribes were incredibly diverse. Among the Haida and Tlingit tribes of the Northwest Coast, shamans performed virtually all religious functions, encompassing roles as physicians, diviners, and spiritual guides. In some instances, a shaman could even unite civil and religious authority by becoming a town or house chief. The path to becoming a shaman was not always predetermined. While some inherited their position and spiritual helpers from a relative, often an uncle, others gained their status through demonstrated aptitude and natural inclination.
The initiation of a shaman often involved a transformative experience. A common sign of emerging power was a period of unconsciousness or trance, during which the individual received visions or instructions from the spirit world. In other regions of North America, the sweat bath served as a crucial tool for inducing the proper psychic state. Some individuals became shamans after surviving near-death experiences, such as being struck by lightning or escaping the clutches of a wild animal. These experiences were interpreted as signs of divine favor and a calling to serve as a conduit between the human and spirit realms. The powers and responsibilities of Indian Shamans & Priests were crucial to the well being of their tribes.
The practices of a shaman, particularly on the Northwest Coast, were often characterized by elaborate rituals and displays. When treating a patient or performing other spiritual duties, the shaman was believed to be possessed by a supernatural being, whose name they adopted and whose attire they imitated. The Tlingit shamans often invoked multiple minor spirits, each represented on the shaman’s mask, to enhance their senses and abilities. A characteristic feature was the shaman’s long, uncut hair, symbolizing their connection to the spiritual world. Performances involved rapid movements around a fire, often in the direction of the sun, accompanied by the rhythmic beat of wooden drums and the chanting of spirit songs. Through these practices, the spirit would reveal the information sought, such as the location of game animals, the approach of enemies, or the cause of a patient’s illness.
In cases of illness, the shaman employed various methods to diagnose and treat the ailment. These included blowing on the affected area, using charms, or even attempting to extract the object causing pain. If the patient’s soul had wandered, the shaman would attempt to recapture and restore it to the body. In cases of witchcraft, the shaman would identify the perpetrator and prescribe the appropriate course of action. Payment for the shaman’s services was typically required in advance, but in the event of failure, it was often returned. In some tribes, failure to cure a patient could even result in the shaman’s death. To further demonstrate their power, shamans often performed sleight-of-hand feats, and in conflicts between hostile groups, shamans might engage in spiritual battles through their respective spirit allies. The work of Indian Shamans & Priests was dangerous but necessary.
While the underlying principles of shamanistic practices were similar across various American tribes, the specific forms they took varied considerably. In contrast to the possession model, Iroquois shamans controlled their spirits objectively, as if manipulating instruments. Chitimacha shamans consulted their spirit helpers in trances. Among the Nootka, there were two distinct classes of shamans: the Ucták-u, or "workers," who cured illnesses caused by enemies or intrusive objects, and the K’ok-oÄ’tsmaah, or "soul workers," who specialized in restoring wandering souls to their bodies. The Songish of Vancouver Island also recognized two types of shamans. The higher-ranking squnä’am acquired their power through interaction with supernatural beings, while the sī’oua, typically a woman, received her knowledge from another sī’oua. The former resembled the common shamanic type, while the latter focused on appeasing hostile spirits, using a sacred language, and providing charms for women seeking children. The rich traditions of Indian Shamans & Priests are fascinating.
Among the Salish, the initiation of shamans and warriors appears to have followed a similar pattern, with animals serving as guardian spirits for the novices. Kutenai shamans maintained special lodges within the camp, larger than the others, where they prayed and invoked the spirits. The Hupa of California distinguished between dancing shamans, who diagnosed the cause of disease and prescribed remedies, and other shamans who removed the affliction through sucking. Mojave shamans typically received their powers directly from Mastamho, the chief deity, through dreams rather than the more common methods of fasting, isolation, and petition. This dream-based acquisition of power was also found among the Shasta.
The Maidu exhibited considerable variations in shamanic practices within a relatively small area. In some regions, heredity played a minimal role in determining who became a shaman, while in others, particularly in the northeast, all of a shaman’s children were obligated to follow in their parent’s footsteps, or risk death at the hands of the spirits. There were two types of shamans: the shaman proper, whose primary function was healing, and the "dreamer," who communicated with spirits and the ghosts of the dead. All shamans were also dreamers, but not vice versa. During the winter months, dreamers held meetings in darkened houses, where they communicated with spirits, similar to modern spirit mediums. Shamans in the foothill region would gather to compete in displays of power, dancing until only one remained. Individuals seeking to become shamans without a family history of the practice had to journey to the mountains, fast, and perform specific ceremonies in a place believed to be inhabited by spirits. Shamans in this region commonly carried cocoon rattles. The dedication and training required to become one of the Indian Shamans & Priests was extensive.
Among the Chippewa, historians recognize three classes of shamans, in addition to herbalists and doctors: the wâbÄ›nÅ’, who practiced medical magic; the jÄ›s’sakī’d, who were seers and prophets deriving their power from the thunder god; and the midē’, who were associated with the sacred society of the Midē’wiwin and were more akin to priests. The Delaware had similar figures called medeu, who focused on healing, and a separate class of diviners called powwow, or "dreamers." Unlike most shamans, the Central Eskimo communicated with their spirits while seated. Their primary duty was to identify breaches of taboo that had caused sickness or storms.
In contrast to the individualistic nature of shamanism, the role of a priest was typically associated with national or tribal concerns. Priests might lead rituals, preserve sacred myths, and act as intermediaries between spirits and men, but their authority was derived from their position within a structured religious system. In some cases, such as among the Northwest Coast tribes and the Eskimo, the functions of priest and shaman were combined. The interchangeable use of these terms by some writers, particularly when referring to Eastern tribes, makes it difficult to distinguish between the two roles. Even in societies where shamanism was prevalent, priestly functions often centered around the village or tribal chief. This is evident among the Haida, Tlingit, Tsimshian, and Kwakiutl, where chiefs played a prominent role in secret society performances. The chief of the Fraser River coast Salish held a position more akin to a high priest than a civil chief, leading his people in religious ceremonies. The importance of Indian Shamans & Priests cannot be overstated.
Many tribes of the eastern plains had two classes of individuals who could be categorized as priests. One consisted of societies that focused on applying specific remedies while invoking superior powers, requiring initiates to undergo a period of instruction. The other comprised a select few men who served as superior officers in national rituals, transmitting their knowledge to a limited number of successors. Similar to these were the priests of the Midē’wiwin ceremony among the Chippewa, Menominee, and other Algonquian tribes.
Some sources suggest that every Creek town had a high priest, a figure of significant influence who played a vital role in state affairs, particularly military matters. These priests could predict rain or drought, claim to bring rain at will, cure diseases, exorcise witchcraft, invoke or expel evil spirits, and even control thunder and lightning. The Natchez state was a theocracy, where the head chief, or "Great Sun," was believed to be a direct descendant of the national lawgiver who emerged from the sun and served as the ex-officio high priest of the nation. The other Suns shared these functions to a lesser degree and formed a sacred caste.
The most highly developed priesthood north of Mexico existed among the Pueblos of New Mexico and Arizona, where priests controlled the civil and military branches of the tribe. The rain priesthood, composed almost entirely of men, was responsible for ensuring abundant rain through secret prayers and fasts. The priesthood of the bow was essentially a war society whose ceremonies gave thanks for plentiful crops or, after a scalp had been taken, were intended to bring rain by pleasing the gods. The two head priests of the bow and the rain priests of the six cardinal points formed the highest authority and the court of last appeal in Zuni society. Each of these priests, except the priest of the zenith, had several assistants. The priestess of fecundity, the female assistant of the priest of the north, held the highest rank and wielded considerable authority. Below these were the society of Kótikilli and the esoteric societies. All male Zuni, and rarely some females, were admitted into the Kótikilli, which dealt directly with the gods and performed ceremonies to bring rain. The esoteric societies focused primarily on zoic or beast gods and served as healing societies. They might treat patients during ceremonies or send for individual members. These societies also held important ceremonies to induce rain. The active members of these societies, including the Kótikilli, were called "theurgists," but their functions were closer to those of priests than shamans. The legacy of Indian Shamans & Priests endures.