Maritime History of Florida
Florida, a sprawling, relatively flat peninsula embraced by the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the Atlantic Ocean, boasts a maritime history as deep and varied as the waters that surround it. The very shape and size of this land, coupled with its unique natural features – the treacherous reefs, the shifting shoals, the varying water depths, the powerful currents, the strategic locations of rivers and inlets, and the unpredictable weather patterns – have profoundly shaped where people have chosen to live and, conversely, where countless vessels have met their watery demise. The Maritime History of Florida is inextricably linked to its geography.
For at least 12,000 years, humans have inhabited this land, though those earliest Floridians would scarcely recognize the state we know today. The sea level, dramatically higher by 20 to 50 fathoms, has submerged nearly half of the original Florida peninsula. Early settlements clustered around freshwater springs and sinkholes, along the winding rivers, and near the bountiful coasts, particularly in areas now encompassed by the Timucuan Ecological and Historic Preserve. Fish and shellfish, readily available in both fresh and saltwater environments, formed a cornerstone of their diet. Tragically, the archeological remnants of these ancient settlements now lie submerged, resting on the bottoms of rivers and springs, and scattered across the continental shelf offshore. The Maritime History of Florida began long before recorded history.
The indigenous people of Florida, as far back as 6,000 years ago, expertly navigated the waterways and coastlines using canoes. These vessels weren’t merely tools for sustenance; they were crucial for communication and trade between the diverse tribes that populated the peninsula. To date, approximately 300 prehistoric canoes have been discovered at over 200 sites throughout Florida, a testament to their widespread use and importance. These simple watercraft laid the foundation for the Maritime History of Florida.
The late 15th and early 16th centuries witnessed a dramatic shift in the Maritime History of Florida. European explorers, driven by the allure of a faster sea route to Asia, sailed westward and encountered the Americas. The discovery of new resources ripe for exploitation, populations ripe for conversion, and lands ripe for claiming ignited a scramble among the Spanish, French, and English. These European powers dispatched military forces, missionaries, and colonists to establish footholds and extend their spheres of influence. The first recorded European encounter in Florida occurred in 1513, with the arrival of the Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de Leon in the vicinity of present-day St. Augustine. Ponce de Leon christened the land "La Florida" and embarked on a voyage to circumnavigate what he initially believed to be an island. His journey took him south to the Florida Keys, where he named a cluster of islands "Las Tortugas," and then north to the area of modern-day Tampa.
Ponce de Leon’s arrival marked only the beginning. He was soon followed by other Spanish conquistadors, including Panfilo de Narvaez, who landed near present-day Tampa Bay in 1528 and marched north to the Apalachee region, and Hernando de Soto, who landed in Tampa Bay in 1539, spent five months near Tallahassee, and whose explorations of the southeastern United States are commemorated at the De Soto National Memorial. In 1559, Tristan de Luna y Arellano attempted to establish a colony at Pensacola Bay, but a devastating hurricane destroyed all but three of his supply ships. The Emanuel Point shipwreck site, discovered in 1992 by the Florida Bureau of Archaeological Research, is believed to be the remains of one of these ill-fated vessels. The early explorations significantly shaped the Maritime History of Florida.
The French also sought to establish a presence in Florida. In 1562, Jean Ribaut led a French expedition to Florida, marking a location along the St. Johns River for future settlement before sailing north to establish Charlesfort, a colony that ultimately failed in present-day Parris Island, South Carolina. Two years later, Rene Goulaine de Laudonniere founded Fort de la Caroline, a French Huguenot settlement, along the banks of the St. Johns River. These early attempts highlight the complex and competitive nature of the Maritime History of Florida.
The year 1565 witnessed a pivotal moment in the Maritime History of Florida. The Spanish, under the command of Pedro Menendez de Aviles, launched a successful assault on Fort Caroline, resulting in a brutal defeat for the French and the establishment of St. Augustine, the first permanent European colony in North America. However, the French were not easily deterred. In 1567, Dominique de Gourgues led a French force that recaptured Fort Caroline. In 1569, the Spanish constructed a watchtower at Matanzas Inlet to monitor the horizon and provide early warning of approaching ships to St. Augustine. This strategy proved ineffective in 1586 when the English privateer Sir Francis Drake attacked and plundered St. Augustine. The French colonial endeavor in Florida is now commemorated at the Fort Caroline National Memorial, a reminder of the early struggles that defined the Maritime History of Florida.
From the late 16th century through the 18th century, the Spanish Empire organized annual convoys of merchant and military escort vessels, known as the Spanish Plate Fleets, to transport wealth from Cuba to Spain. These fleets carried vast quantities of gold, silver, and gemstones extracted from the mines of Mexico and Peru, as well as coveted goods from Asia, including porcelains, silks, pearls, and spices, which reached the Americas via the Spanish Manila Galleon fleet that traversed the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish Plate Fleets were a central element of the Maritime History of Florida.
These homeward-bound Spanish Plate Fleets navigated the Gulf Stream through the Straits of Florida and followed the North American coastline northward before turning east toward the Azores and Spain. To safeguard these valuable fleets from French and British raiders and pirates, and to aid in rescuing survivors and salvaging cargo from ships wrecked along Florida’s treacherous shores due to hurricanes and navigational errors, the Spanish constructed coastal fortifications and settlements, including the Castillo de San Marcos. These defensive measures were essential for maintaining Spanish control and influence within the Maritime History of Florida.
Over the centuries, numerous Spanish ships were lost off the Florida coast, with the most catastrophic losses occurring to the fleets of 1622, 1715, and 1733. During the 20th century, the remains of several of these lost vessels were discovered, including the Nuestra Senora de Atocha from the 1622 fleet, the Urca de Lima from the 1715 fleet, and the San Pedro from the 1733 fleet. These discoveries provide valuable insights into the Maritime History of Florida and the perils faced by those who sailed its waters.
Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, the Spanish, French, and English continued their struggle for territorial and religious dominance in Florida. The British, based in Georgia and South Carolina, sought to expand southward, while the French advanced eastward along the Gulf Coast from the Mississippi River valley. The Spanish relied on Castillo de San Marcos to defend St. Augustine and began construction of Fort Matanzas in 1740 to provide additional protection from the south. This period of conflict profoundly shaped the Maritime History of Florida.
During the War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739-1748) between Spain and Great Britain, the Royal Navy patrolled the Caribbean and the North American coastline. One vessel lost during this conflict was HMS Fowey, whose wreck lies within the boundaries of Biscayne National Park and has been extensively studied by the National Park Service and Florida State University. The Maritime History of Florida is punctuated by such stories of naval engagement and loss.
In 1763, under the Treaty of Paris, Spain ceded control of Florida to Great Britain in exchange for Havana, Cuba, which the British had captured during the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763). That same year, the British built a fort overlooking the entrance to Pensacola Bay. Spain recaptured Pensacola in 1781 and regained control of the rest of Florida in 1783 when Britain ceded Florida to Spain in exchange for the Bahamas and Gibraltar. Around 1797, Spain built two forts at Pensacola Bay near the earlier British fort. Little physical evidence of these forts remains, but what does remain has been preserved at Gulf Islands National Seashore. Even during this relatively brief period, the Maritime History of Florida continued to evolve.
Despite Britain’s short tenure in Florida, its impact on the economy and settlement was significant. As the British population grew and slaves were brought in, colonial plantations and other industries flourished, exporting their products to other British colonies and engaging in illicit trade with Spanish Louisiana and Mexico. This was facilitated by surveyors mapping the landscape, land grants being issued, the construction of the first road, and the introduction of a packet system of shipping by rivers and along the coasts. This economic prosperity and maritime trade persisted after Britain ceded Florida back to Spain, with exports reaching neighboring Gulf Coast and Eastern seaboard areas, the Northeast, and even Europe. This economic activity contributed significantly to the Maritime History of Florida.
Spain formally ceded Florida to the United States as part of the Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819, and Florida became a U.S. Territory in 1821. Coastal trade with other markets continued to expand, and towns like Jacksonville, Pensacola, and Tampa emerged as important ports. After becoming a U.S. Territory, the U.S. Government began building a series of lighthouses as aids to navigation along the coasts of Florida to mark dangerous headlands, shoals, bars, and reefs. These developments solidified the Maritime History of Florida as an integral part of the United States.
The U.S. Navy has played a prominent role in Florida’s maritime history. In the 1820s, the U.S. Navy was tasked with protecting ships off Florida’s coasts from pirates that plagued merchant ships in the Caribbean. One of the patrol ships was the USS Alligator, which was lost near Islamorada while escorting a merchant convoy. In 1826, construction began on the Pensacola Navy Yard, and four forts were built to defend it. What remains of Fort Pickens, Fort Barrancas, and Fort McRee, which overlook Pensacola Bay near the earlier British and Spanish forts, is preserved today within Gulf Islands National Seashore. Near the end of the 19th century, and due to the Spanish-American War, Tampa and other Florida ports became staging areas for tens of thousands of U.S. troops and supplies headed to Cuba. With the advent of manned controlled flight and the building of aircraft carriers and seaplanes, the U.S. Navy established an aviation training station at Pensacola in 1913 and another in Jacksonville in 1940. The U.S. Navy’s presence is an enduring element of the Maritime History of Florida.
Following statehood in 1845, Florida’s economy strengthened, and its principal ports shipped vast quantities of citrus, cotton, lumber, and other products to the Atlantic states, the Caribbean, and Europe. The Federal government began constructing coastal forts, including Fort Taylor in Key West and Fort Jefferson on Garden Key in the Dry Tortugas, to better control navigation through the Florida Straits. Although Fort Jefferson was never finished, construction continued for 30 years, and vast quantities of bricks were shipped to the key in flat-bottomed steamboats like that found at the Bird Key wreck, which was lost while transporting bricks. This era saw significant growth in the Maritime History of Florida.
Seceding from the Union in 1861, Florida joined the Confederacy. During the Civil War, Florida’s ports were blockaded by the Union, and blockade runners delivered supplies needed by the Confederacy in exchange for Florida products. Although there were some vessel casualties on both sides, the major naval battles occurred in states north of Florida. One unfortunate casualty in Florida waters was the Union transport ship Maple Leaf, which struck a Confederate mine. The Civil War era marks a turbulent chapter in the Maritime History of Florida.
After the Civil War, tenant farmers and sharecroppers took over plantation lands, and agriculture, cattle ranching, lumber, manufacturing, and extractive industries like phosphate mining became important, prompting transportation improvements. Railroads expanded across the state, connecting the ports and the interior, and steamboats like the City of Hawkinsville, SS Tarpon, and SS Copenhagen began providing regular passenger and freight service on inland waterways like the St. Johns River and ocean service to international destinations. Tourism flourished with steamboat tours and hotels near rail lines. The Maritime History of Florida saw a resurgence after the Civil War.
During the late 19th century, the Federal government and local port authorities improved channels and harbors and charted and mapped Florida’s waters. These improvements and technological advances in navigation and shipbuilding during the 20th century helped propel Florida’s ports to global prominence in trade and commerce, the cruise industry, and marine recreation. Florida may well hold the record for the number of pleasure boats used by sports fishermen, jet skiers, windsurfers, power boaters, sail boaters, water skiers, and scuba divers. Today, the Maritime History of Florida continues to evolve, driven by trade, tourism, and recreation.