Mining History in the United States
By Albert S. Bolles in 1879
The narrative of American mining is a captivating saga, one etched in the landscape and fueled by the dreams of prospectors, investors, and laborers alike. From the earliest colonial settlements to the boomtowns of the Wild West, the quest for mineral wealth has profoundly shaped the nation’s economic, social, and technological development. This is a history replete with tales of hardship, ingenuity, and the relentless pursuit of fortune, a story that continues to resonate in the American consciousness. The lure of uncovering valuable mineral resources acted as a compelling motivation for the initial colonists arriving in America, who dedicated themselves to the systematic search for metals.
Driven by the promise of riches, the early colonists who ventured to the shores of North America were keen to unearth the continent’s hidden treasures. Almost immediately following the establishment of the first settlements along the Atlantic Coast, discoveries of silver, lead, copper, iron, tin, antimony, coal, and other valuable minerals were reported. However, these resources were often found in limited quantities, and the economic viability of mining operations was challenged by competition from established foreign producers. Furthermore, the ever-present threat of conflict with Native American tribes posed a significant risk to these fledgling enterprises. Despite these challenges, the colonists persevered, laying the foundation for what would become a vital sector of the American economy.
Iron ore holds the distinction of being among the first mineral resources extracted from the New World, with shipments sent to England from near Jamestown as early as 1608, just a year after the permanent settlement of Virginia. Recognizing the potential of this resource, in 1620, the colony imported 150 skilled workmen to construct and operate ironworks. However, this promising venture was tragically cut short by a devastating Indian massacre two years later. Further setbacks arose from misidentified resources, such as Captain John Smith’s purported discovery of gold in Virginia, which ultimately proved to be nothing more than worthless iron pyrites.
Despite these initial misfortunes, the tenacious colonists displayed remarkable resilience, making commendable progress in establishing a mining industry. Iron production was permanently resumed in 1715. Iron deposits were discovered in Massachusetts in 1628, leading to the formation of a company in 1643 dedicated to their exploitation. Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, and Pennsylvania soon followed suit, each contributing to the burgeoning industry. William Penn, for instance, identified iron ore as early as 1683, although evidence of forges on his land grants does not appear until 1719-20. Mining operations also commenced in Missouri, then under French control, in 1720, and the Southampton silver-lead mine in Massachusetts was opened in 1765. Copper mining, first documented in Connecticut with the Simsbury mines in 1709, was eventually abandoned due to profitability concerns around the mid-18th century. The Schuyler Mine, situated near Belleville, New Jersey, was discovered in 1719 and holds historical significance as the site where the first steam engine in America was constructed in 1793-94. Limited amounts of Lake Superior copper were initially mined by white settlers in 1771. In these early colonial times, wood served as the primary fuel source, with charcoal used in forges and smelting operations. Coal was discovered in Rhode Island in 1768 and subsequently mined for fuel. The vast bituminous seam near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was unearthed in 1784. Prior to this discovery, Virginia had also identified coal deposits, and canals were constructed to connect parallel rivers, facilitating its transportation. By 1789, a thriving export trade had developed with neighboring colonies.
These and other metals were discovered at various locations along the Atlantic seaboard before the American Revolution. Smelting facilities and forges were erected to process the extracted ores, with some of the refined metals being exported. However, the British government’s policy of discouraging manufacturing in the colonies hindered the growth of the domestic mining industry. Despite these constraints, gradual progress was made over several decades. The Revolutionary War acted as a catalyst for the mining sector by disrupting supplies from England and creating a demand for iron and copper ordnance, lead bullets, and other metals for domestic and military use. However, the war also drained the country of manpower, limiting the available workforce for mining activities.
Significant advancements in the mining industry did not occur until the early 19th century. In 1820, attempts were made to combine anthracite coal with charcoal in iron smelting. These experiments were initially unsuccessful until the invention of the hot blast in 1831, which revolutionized both the coal and iron industries. The year 1835 witnessed a surge in lead mining activity in Missouri and Iowa, spurred by new discoveries.
Around 1842, copper mining experienced a revival along Lake Superior. The California gold rush of 1849 marked the beginning of large-scale gold extraction in the West. Petroleum emerged as a significant resource for the first time in August 1859, with the successful drilling of the Drake Well. That same year, the discovery of the Comstock Lode in Nevada laid the foundation for the silver mining industry. This Mining History in the United States is rich and varied.
A retrospective examination of the Mining History in the United States during this pivotal era reveals a pattern of intense excitement, speculative investment, miscalculations, and considerable waste. As noted by Kimball, the history of mining is "an instructive narrative of fluctuating fortune, ranging through all the intermittent vicissitudes of prosperity and stagnation, of factitious inflations and calamitous recoils, of blind delusion and credulity, of stolid unbelief, of highest popularity, and general distrust."
The prospect of accumulating wealth rapidly has often captivated individuals, and the discovery of substantial deposits of both base and precious metals has provided alluring opportunities for both laborers and investors. Consequently, each significant discovery of lead, copper, gold, oil, and silver has triggered widespread enthusiasm. An immense influx of people has converged upon the areas of interest, with fortunes, both large and small, being invested in land claims and mining companies. Towns and villages have sprung up with remarkable speed, only to face the harsh realities of unfulfilled expectations. Disappointment and financial ruin have often ensued, leading to poverty, illness, and death. Entire settlements have vanished as quickly as they appeared.
In this frenzy of greed and excitement, numerous errors were committed beyond simply investing in unproductive land. Smelting furnaces were constructed without adequate consideration for fuel availability, and costly ore-crushing machinery was transported to mining sites without verifying the presence of ore or the suitability of the equipment. New metal extraction processes were implemented without proper evaluation, and speculators engaged in other imprudent actions. The Mining History in the United States is filled with these booms and busts.
Furthermore, the pursuit of quick riches resulted in substantial waste of valuable minerals. In the lead-rich regions of the Mississippi Valley, argentiferous galena, containing both lead and silver, was common, and the lead was often discarded in the effort to extract the small amount of silver. In coal mining areas, particularly before the emergence of large, monopolistic companies, only the richest seams were exploited, leaving significant quantities of lower-grade but still valuable coal to be lost due to collapses.
Such careless practices resulted in the loss of one-third to one-half of the extracted minerals. Similar conditions prevailed in silver mining regions, where mines were abandoned as soon as surface deposits were depleted, and the accumulation of water and debris made it virtually impossible to continue operations in productive shafts. However, by the latter half of the 19th century, a shift occurred, and these excesses gradually declined.
Following the discovery of vast mineral resources and the ensuing desire for wealth, the American mining industry was further stimulated by the government’s supportive policies and advancements in mechanics and natural science. Under English law, the crown held claim to gold and silver found on government lands, as well as a portion of other minerals. In contrast, in the United States, where legislation was initially limited until the late 1800s, gold and silver miners on the Pacific Coast operated under self-imposed regulations. The government generally encouraged the free exploration and assessment of mineral deposits and facilitated the affordable purchase and lease of mining lands. Protective tariffs on imported metals, particularly those implemented since 1861, have significantly contributed to the development of the iron, copper, coal, and other mineral industries. This Mining History in the United States shows the importantance of government policy.
Among the most significant innovations in practical mining and metallurgy during the late 19th century were the California stamp mill for crushing quartz, the mercury amalgamation process for gold extraction, the panning process for silver recovery, the hydraulic mining technique for gold in alluvial regions, the application of new explosives for rock blasting, improved drilling methods, advanced blast furnaces, and new techniques for converting iron into steel. The Mining History in the United States shows how important technology is in the mining process.
Albert S. Bolles, 1879. Compiled and edited by Kathy Alexander/Legends of America, updated April 2024.
About the Article: This article was originally published in Albert S. Bolles’s book, Industrial History of the United States, Volume IV, in 1879. Published by the Henry Bill Publishing Company, Norwich, CN. Bolles served as a lecturer in Political Economy at Boston University, editor of the Banker’s Magazine, lectured on banking and trusts at the University of the City of New York, and authored several other books, including The Financial History of the United States, The Conflict Between Labor and Capital, and Practical Banking.